Volume 1, 2021

The five functions of Fayol's management

Author: Alexander Jonas

The five functions of Fayol's management are a popular topic that every student should be familiar with.

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About a century ago, the eminent management expert Henri Fayol formulated five main functions of management. If a manager performs these functions well, he will be as successful as possible in his work, other things being equal.

The five (5) functions of Fayol's management

Henri Fayol is a French engineer and one of the prominent theorists and practitioners of management since the early twentieth century. He is the creator of the so-called "School of Administrative Management" and the author of several important management concepts that have become a classic nowadays.

In 1916, Fayol published his greatest work, the book Industrial and General Administration. In it, he reveals the five management functions that every manager should perform.

The five functions are:

• Planning
• Organization
• Commanding
• Coordinating
• Controlling
• Let's take a closer look at each of Fayol's five management functions.

1. Planning

Planning is the first function of management. Planning is an attempt to predict the future of the organization and to determine the measures needed to transition to this new state.

At the heart of the planning process is the development of a formal action plan. This plan should be based on the resources available to the organization and on possible trends that may occur in the future.

Fayol believes that planning is one of the most difficult and important tasks for management, in which the entire organization must take an active part.

The ideal plan should combine:

purposefulness, i.e. the general plan to be supported by the separate plans of the smaller structures and units in the organization;

continuity, i.e. the planned actions to be considered as elements of a continuous process of development;

flexibility, i.e. the plan to take into account the possibility of unexpected circumstances;

accuracy, i.e. the plan should be as accurate as possible.

In line with the planning function of management, Fayol pays serious attention to forecasting, which requires the development of one-day, weekly, monthly, annual, five-year, and ten-year forecasts, which should be adjusted promptly given the circumstances.

At the time, Fayol's emphasis on planning and forecasting was something unique that other executives did not have in mind at the time.

2. Organizing

The organization is the second function of management. Organizing is the activity by which the company receives everything it needs for its operation - raw materials, tools, capital, and personnel.

Fayol pays serious attention to the so-called "Organizational structure" and assumes that the form of the organization depends mainly on the number of staff. As the number of people increases, so do the various functions that are performed in the organization, respectively the need for control over the work of people increases.

All this leads to a well-known model of organizational pyramid or hierarchy. In this connection, Fayol considers that:

"Each new group of ten, twenty, thirty workers needs a foreman to lead it. If these masters are two, three, or four, the need arises for one of them to be of a higher rank. Two or three with a higher rank need a head-to-head entire department.

The organizational pyramid should be built similarly until it covers the whole organization to its highest level. Also, each new boss should not have more than 4-5 subordinates. "

3. Commanding

Commanding is the third function of management. The order aims to achieve the optimal effect of the efforts of workers, in the interest of the whole organization.

Management success depends on a combination of personal qualities and knowledge of general principles of management. According to Fayol, a manager should remember and follow the following rules:

• Try to get to know your subordinates better;
• Fights incompetence;
• Be aware of all the details of the contracts concluded between the company and the employees.
• Give a good personal example;
• Conduct periodic inspections in the organization;
• Hold meetings with leading associates to give directions for action and emphasize the main priorities of the company;
• Don't go into too small details;

Strive to create such a working atmosphere among the team that stimulates the unity of staff, energy, initiative, and loyalty of employees.

Concerning the Ordering function, Fayol attaches great importance to the importance of motivation as well as to the delegation of staff rights. Fayol believes that:

"The leader can stimulate the initiative of his subordinates by delegating rights to them, thus providing them with opportunities to fully realize their potential and skills. This can happen at the cost of making individual mistakes, the severity of which is significantly limited with proper control.

The manager can quickly turn a person with unspeakable abilities into a first-class specialist, not doing all the work for him, but helping him through the method of prompting. Yes, for this purpose the leader will have to humbly limit his pride. ”

4. Coordinating

Coordination is the fourth function of management. Coordination aims to ensure optimal harmony between the various activities of the organization.

Good coordination facilitates the work and makes the functioning of the organization more successful. This function is designed to balance the different aspects of the work, for example, to observe proportional spending in terms of available financial resources, production needs, stocks, and market demand.

For the sake of good coordination, Fayol recommends holding daily meetings. The purpose of the meeting is as follows:

"The meeting should inform the management of the company's work, discuss issues of cooperation between the various departments, and address issues of common interest.

Participants in such a meeting should not be concerned with planning, but with questions about the implementation of existing plans.

At the meeting, the discussion may take place only for a short period, usually not exceeding one week, in connection with the harmonization of activities and setting current priorities. "

5. Controlling

Controlling is the fifth function of management. Control is designed to ensure compliance with everything that happens in the organization with pre-defined plans, principles, and standards of work.

In such a context, control aims to detect errors and weaknesses in the work to neutralize them and prevent them from recurring in the future. As Fayol writes:

"Control affects everything - products, people, and operations."

Fayol believes that control should not be the sole responsibility of management. This should be dealt with by impartial quality managers who are not in a hierarchical relationship of power with the employees. Control of this nature is a valuable addition to management, which allows obtaining information that would otherwise remain inaccessible under normal control.

Summary

The five functions of Fayol's management are:

• Planning
• Organizing
• Commanding
• Coordinating
• Controlling

Today, these features sound close to the mind, even elementary, but for its time, Fayol's ideas were extremely innovative and pioneering.

It is, therefore, no coincidence that Henri Fayol is considered the progenitor of ideas that have no analog in the theory and practice of management at this time.

Questions and Answers

Q1: What are the five functions of Fayol's management theory?

A1: The five functions are planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. These functions provide a comprehensive framework for managers to effectively oversee and direct their teams and resources.

Q2: Why is planning considered the foundation of management according to Fayol?

A2: Planning is the foundational function of management because it involves envisioning the future direction of the organization and setting specific goals and objectives to achieve it. By carefully planning, managers can anticipate potential obstacles and opportunities, leading to informed decision-making and resource allocation.

Q3: How does organizing contribute to effective management?

A3: Organizing is crucial in effective management as it involves structuring resources, tasks, and human capital to ensure optimal efficiency and productivity. By defining roles and responsibilities, establishing clear reporting lines, and creating a well-defined organizational structure, managers can avoid confusion and streamline operations.

Q4: What does the function of commanding entail?

A4: The commanding function revolves around the role of managers in providing clear guidance, instructions, and leadership to their teams. Effective communication and motivation play a significant role in this function, inspiring employees to work towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives.

Q5: Why is coordination crucial in modern organizations?

A5: In today's complex and interconnected business environment, coordination is essential to align various departments and teams toward common goals. Through effective coordination, managers can minimize conflicts, encourage collaboration, and harness the collective efforts of employees to achieve greater synergy.

Q6: How does the controlling function aid in effective management?

A6: Controlling is a vital function as it involves monitoring performance, comparing it against predetermined standards, and taking corrective actions when necessary. This function ensures that the organization remains on track and deviations from plans are addressed promptly, thus maintaining efficiency and effectiveness.

Q7: Can Fayol's management functions be applied to contemporary businesses?

A7: Absolutely. Despite being introduced over a century ago, Fayol's functions are still relevant in modern businesses. They offer valuable insights and guidelines for managers to adapt to the changing business landscape and address new challenges effectively.

Q8: What challenges may arise when implementing Fayol's management functions in modern organizations?

A8: Some challenges include dealing with rapid technological advancements, managing diverse and global teams, and fostering innovation while maintaining control and coordination.

Q9: How can managers effectively apply Fayol's functions in their leadership approach?

A9: Managers can apply Fayol's functions by first setting clear and achievable goals through planning, then organizing resources efficiently, providing visionary leadership, promoting teamwork and communication, and implementing robust control mechanisms to measure progress.

Q10: Are Fayol's management functions static or adaptable?

A10: Fayol's functions provide a timeless framework but are also adaptable to suit the unique needs of different industries and organizations. Managers can adjust and customize their approaches based on the specific challenges and opportunities they face.

Cog's ladder of group development

Author: Bianca P Robson

Cog's ladder of group development is based on the title, “Cog's Ladder: A Model of Group Growth“, written by George O. Charrier, an employee of Procter and Gamble, announced in 1972. The initial report was addressed to support group managers to understand the dynamics of group work, thus improving efficiency. Cog's ladder of group development is practiced by the United States Naval Academy, the United States Air Force Academy, and other companies.

What is Cog's ladder of group development?

In the daily life of organizations of different scales and fields of activity, it is often necessary to create groups or teams to do some activity or achieve a certain goal.

Managing such a newly formed group of people is a challenging task, as it is rarely effective from the start. The reasons are various - people do not know each other well, do not trust each other, do not know what is required of them, or enter a fierce struggle for power and influence.

In short, "Cog's Ladder" is a popular tool with which managers can better understand the dynamics of a group, respectively, and accelerate its development.

The name "COG" model comes from the first letters of the names of its author, arranged in reverse - "George O. Charrier".

George Charrier found through empirical observations a characteristic pattern that each group follows in its development. According to him, a group most often goes through five main stages of development, similar to climbing the stairs.

The five stages of development of a group are:

• Polite stage
• "Why we're here" stage
• Power stage
• Cooperation stage
• Esprit stage

The Cog's Ladder is a useful tool to understand why a group or team is not working effectively enough. It is enough to assess the development phase, which in turn is related to the characteristic processes that take place in the group/team, as well as to the characteristic degree of overall efficiency.

Let's take a closer look at each of the five "steps" of Cog's Ladder.

Polite stage

Politeness is the first stage of Cog's ladder. When a group first comes together, its identity is not yet formed, and people know little about each other or know little about the task at hand.

Therefore, in the politeness phase, the members of the group most often adhere to a kind and safe relationship, through which they gradually get to know each other. Everyone seeks the approval of others and expresses cautious opinions and positions, usually through "I think…" and "I think…" Tensions and conflicts are usually avoided.

In this stage of group development, people are generally in the "Facade" quadrant of Johari's Window - they share less information and gather more information about others to orient themselves in the situation without "revealing" their cards.

The role of the group (team) leader in this period is to help the members to get to know each other more easily and to build initial trust in each other.

Stage "Why are we here?"

The next stage in group development is "Why are we here?"

In this phase, the group members begin to actively seek guidance on what the group is expected to achieve and what the overall goal is.

People tend to be more open to each other and communication between them is no longer so reserved. The members of the group begin to express more freely their personal opinion about the common task, the ways to achieve it and the possible contribution of everyone to all this.

In the stage "Why are we here?" the members of the group are dragged by different aspects of the task, depending on their strengths, competence, etc., due to which the first "cliques" are formed - small groups of sympathy and "interests".

At this stage, group identity is weak, but still, people begin to realize more tangibly that they are part of something in common.

The role of the group/team leader in this phase is to clearly define the overall goal, deadlines, task requirements, and any other important information. The leader should be prepared to expect many questions about the purpose and how to achieve it.

Power stage

The power struggle phase is the third stage of Cog's ladder in the group's development.

The members of the group (team) compete in the struggle for influence, authority, and power. In this phase, it is common to notice resistance, criticism, refutation of other people's opinions, competition, jealousy, and a lot of tension between people. The group finds it difficult to make common decisions.

Tensions, criticism, and conflicts between members emerge in the group. Some interactions can be particularly fierce. This should not bother the group leader - such a phase is normal and all groups/teams overcome these problems at some point. Conflicts should not be limited, but it is important to take measures so that they are constructive and not destructive. Constructive conflicts involve a clash of ideas. Destructive conflicts are simply interpersonal.

In the phase of power struggle, the members of the group no longer seek the approval of everyone and openly express their opinion. Some of the most confident members of the group may try to dominate everyone else, while others either do not take a stand or quietly take sides.

The role of the group (team) leader in this phase is to explain the roles of people and their importance and specific activities. The leader should strive to establish an atmosphere of cooperation and constructive conflict management through effective communication. Some compromises may need to be made to facilitate group/team progress.

Cooperation stage

The fourth stage of group development according to Cog's ladder is the phase of cooperation.

During this phase, a consensus is reached on the organization of work. Each member is aware of and accepts their role in the group and focuses much more on the group goal than on their ambitions.

Criticism is becoming more constructive. A friendly atmosphere is created. Everyone's opinion is respected and valued more. Over time, people become more empathetic, support each other, and work more effectively together to achieve a common goal.

During the cooperation phase, the trust in the group/team increases significantly. In conflict situations, group members seek the common interest.

Through this phase, the group (team) leader should be ready to share some of his / her leadership functions with people and involve them in common decisions and actions.

Esprit stage

In the Cog's ladder, the last and highest phase of the development of a group or team is the phase of spirit improvement.

In this phase, the cliques disappear and a strong collective identity and close informal relations emerge. The members of the group express complete trust, motivation, respect, and appreciation for each other.

We notice an absolute commitment to the common goal. Problems with relationships and work processes are solved much more smoothly and independently. All members of the group work very effectively. We often mark significant progress towards the goal.

In such a situation, the growth of the group spirit is much more likely for the group/team to be strongly self-governing. The team no longer depends so much on the efforts of its leader. The people in the group need a leadership style of delegating the tasks and projects they work on.

Appropriate management actions are mainly in the direction of maintaining the conditions that allow high efficiency. The work can be completed on time and with the required quality.

In summary

Cog's ladder is a model for group development, according to which each group or team goes through the following phases:

• Polite stage
• "Why we're here" stage
• Power stage
• Cooperation stage
• Esprit stage

The higher the group manages to "climb" the ladder of Cog, the more effective its activity will be. Conversely, if the group fails to progress up the ladder, a variety of problems will hinder its effectiveness.

Comparisons

The Cog ladder is very similar to Tuckman's stages. This is another model of group management, but it lacks the "Why We Are Here" stage and calls the other four stages "Forming", "Storming", "Norming", and "Performing". There are other similar models, some of which are cyclic without reaching a final state.

The forming–storming–norming–performing model of group development was first introduced by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. He stated that these phases are very important for a team to grow, face up to challenges, tackle obstacles, find solutions, plan work, and deliver results.

Questions and Answers

What is Cog's Ladder of Group Development?

Cog's Ladder of Group Development is a model that explains the various stages of development that groups or teams typically go through as they form, grow, and mature over time.

How does Cog's Ladder of Group Development work?

Cog's Ladder consists of five distinct stages:

Polite Stage

In this initial stage, team members are polite and cautious in their interactions. They focus on building relationships and avoiding conflict. The primary concern is to create a positive impression and get to know each other.

Why We're Here Stage

At this stage, team members start to clarify the purpose of the group and the goals they aim to achieve. They discuss expectations and responsibilities related to the task at hand. The emphasis is on defining the team's objectives and aligning individual efforts with the group's mission.

Power Stage

In the power stage, conflicts may arise as team members compete for influence and power within the group. Roles and hierarchies are established, and there might be disagreements on the group's direction or decision-making processes. Team members may assert their viewpoints more strongly, leading to potential clashes.

Cooperation Stage

As conflicts are resolved, the group moves into the cooperation stage. Team members begin to work together more effectively, combining their skills and expertise to achieve common goals. Trust and mutual understanding develop, and the focus shifts from individual interests to collective success.

Esprit Stage

The final stage is marked by a strong sense of camaraderie and unity within the group. Team members trust and support each other, leading to high levels of motivation and productivity. The team has developed a shared identity, and there is a positive emotional bond among members.

How can leaders facilitate the group's progress through Cog's Ladder?

Leaders play a vital role in guiding the group through each stage of Cog's Ladder. They can facilitate progress by:

• Clearly communicating the group's purpose and goals to ensure everyone is on the same page.
• Encouraging open communication and active listening among team members, allowing everyone to contribute their ideas and concerns.
• Addressing conflicts and disagreements constructively to reach resolutions that benefit the entire group.
• Recognizing and appreciating individual and collective achievements to boost morale and team spirit.
• Fostering a positive and inclusive team culture that promotes collaboration and mutual respect.
• What challenges might groups face during the Power Stage?

During the Power Stage, groups may face challenges related to:

• Competition for leadership positions and influence, which may lead to power struggles.
• Differences in opinions and approaches to problem-solving, causing disagreements and potential conflicts.
• Struggles in establishing clear roles and responsibilities, resulting in confusion and inefficiencies.
• Managing conflicts and power struggles among members, which can hinder progress and collaboration.

How can groups navigate through the Power Stage effectively?

To navigate through the Power Stage effectively, groups can:

• Establish a clear decision-making process that ensures everyone's opinions are considered.
• Encourage open discussions and embrace diverse perspectives to find innovative solutions.
• Seek common ground and compromise when facing conflicts, focusing on the shared objectives.
• Encourage leadership based on expertise and skills rather than dominance, fostering a collaborative environment.

Is it necessary for groups to progress through all the stages of Cog's Ladder?

Groups may not necessarily progress through all the stages of Cog's Ladder in a linear manner. Some groups may skip stages or revert to earlier stages if they encounter challenges or experience changes in their dynamics. The progression through the stages depends on various factors, including group composition, leadership style, and the nature of the task or project.

What are the benefits of understanding Cog's Ladder of Group Development?

Understanding Cog's Ladder of Group Development can provide several benefits, including:

• Helping group members and leaders anticipate and manage challenges at different stages of group development.
• Facilitating effective team-building and communication strategies to enhance collaboration.
• Improving group cohesion and teamwork, leading to increased productivity and efficiency.
• Enhancing group performance by recognizing and addressing potential roadblocks to progress.

How can groups sustain the Esprit Stage over the long term?

To sustain the Esprit Stage over the long term, groups can:

• Continue to nurture positive relationships and trust among members through team-building activities.
• Celebrate successes and milestones together to foster a sense of accomplishment and camaraderie.
• Encourage ongoing learning and professional development, supporting individual growth within the group.
• Embrace a culture of continuous improvement and adaptability, encouraging innovative ideas and practices.

Can Cog's Ladder be applied to virtual or remote teams?

Yes, Cog's Ladder can be applied to virtual or remote teams as well. Although the dynamics may differ due to the absence of face-to-face interactions, the stages of group development remain relevant in understanding how virtual teams form, collaborate, and mature. Effective communication, virtual team-building activities, and clear goal alignment are crucial for virtual teams to progress through the stages successfully.

Manager or Leader: What are the differences and similarities

Author: Louise Dupont

What are the differences between a manager and a leader?

In recent years, the organization is facing new challenges, which are manifested in the following areas:

The market

The market is a phenomenon on which success depends. Ultimately, organizations are market-driven and their management must be market-oriented.

Consumers

The management of modern organizations should be in the direction of:

• Research of consumer demand and approach to the client
• Improving the quality of the product or service provided.
• Search for opportunities to provide your own niche market.
• The dynamics

Prosperous organizations never stop. They are constantly changing and improving.

Perfection

Peters and Waterman, in their book In Search of Perfection, believe that perfection can be achieved if we believe in the capabilities of our co-workers and achieve empathy.

To meet these challenges, organizations must have the resources: human, financial, material, and information. However, the availability of these resources is not enough. Someone needs to combine and coordinate them.

This activity is performed by the manager, who performs various management functions: leadership, planning, organizing, and controlling.

Therefore, the manager is the one who sets the goals, manages, plans organizes, and controls human, financial, material, and information resources.

Setting goals

Goal setting includes:

• selection of activities to be performed in the organization
• defining the expected result
• determining the estimated time for achieving the goal
• determining costs
• selection of a criterion or system of criteria that will confirm that the goal has been achieved

Leadership

Leadership is related to motivating people in the organization, choosing methods and management styles, resolving various types of conflicts, etc.

Planning

Planning is a key function performed by the manager. He must be able to foresee the future. In order to achieve the set goals, it is necessary to make different decisions about what should be done, in what way, by whom, and in what syllables. Read more: Planning a Project in Agile Management

Organizing

By organizing, the arrangement of the individual elements of the organization in time and space is achieved and the organizational balance is preserved. The various changes that take place both within the organization and in the environment require an adequate organizational and coordination response on the part of the manager.

Control and survival

The manager is the one who has to compare the actual situation with the previously desired one (predicted, planned). To this end, it is necessary to define objective criteria for measurement, evaluation, and comparison. It is extremely important in controlling and evaluating to exclude subjectivism, which can lead to conflicts and internal tensions in the organization.

Functions

These functions, which are areas in the activities of the manager, make his work diverse, intense, and full of challenges. Good managers tackle these challenges on behalf of the organizations they lead. To this end, they must perform certain roles and possess the relevant knowledge and skills.

Ability to persuade others

According to Kate Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to pursue a goal enthusiastically. Leadership is a human factor that connects teams and motivates them. Management activities such as planning, organizing, and decision-making are dormant cocoons until the leader arouses in them the power of people's motivation and leads them to achieve goals.

Leadership involves directing and influencing the activities of other individuals. In other words, leadership is the process by which a person influences others by directing their efforts toward achieving the goals of the organization. Every leader must have an influence on the behavior of others.

Power and Influence

This possibility is called "power". And "Influence" is the behavior of each individual, which changes the behavior, feelings, and attitudes of another individual. For leadership to be effective, the leader must develop and use power.

A key part of the management of any organization is coordinating its activities and directing the efforts of members to achieve its goals. This process includes the ability to be a leader. Leadership is an integral part of effective governance.

Every manager must be a leader, but not every leader is a manager. Leadership is manifested in our interpersonal relationships. It is associated with achieving goals so that followers perceive them as their own. Management affects people who perform certain functions, controlling the interaction between them. Read more: The five functions of Fayol's management

Governance

Effective governance is impossible without leadership. Can individuals be trained as leaders or are they born that way? Why do people with completely different traits, education, and culture manage to present themselves as successful leaders? Is it true that there is no leadership without followers?

The answers to these questions have been sought by many scientists for years. Numerous studies also reveal many points of view. If a leader is to be described on the basis of the most general thoughts, he can be characterized as intelligent, determined, charismatic, strong, brave, enthusiastic, etc.

Walk on water

However, in order to manage a person well, it is hardly necessary to walk on water. What he needs to succeed is to have a clear idea of ​​the desired future results, the ways to achieve them, and most importantly the managerial knowledge and skills to organize, plan and control their work.

In words, it sounds easy, but in practice, things are much more complicated. Therefore, in order to distinguish the leader and the manager from each other, we will consider them separately in order to reach the desired conclusions.

Regarding the topic of management and its representatives (managers), we must inevitably wait for the topic of managerial style, roles, and qualities.

Managerial roles

The different situations in which the manager finds himself in the management of organizations make his work extremely diverse and dynamic. In order to be able to deal with all the problems he faces, he has to perform various managerial roles, which can be differentiated as follows:

Roles related to the implementation of interpersonal relationships and solving problems related to them. Within this group, the manager manifests himself as:

Representative

The manager performs representative functions in the external environment - he represents the organization before various institutions and instances, and participates in various events initiated by his organization or other structural units.

In this role, the manager holds meetings with various partners, customers, competitors, distributors, suppliers, and others. Participates in promotions for presentations, awards, and other ceremonial events.

Leader

The fulfillment of this role guarantees the realization of the potential opportunities of the subordinates. Contribute to the inclusion of people's empathy for the organization. They use different motivational mechanisms to get others to follow them in achieving their goals.

The various informal means of improving interpersonal relations play an important role here.

Coordinator

Coordinating the individual efforts of people or those of different groups in the organization is one of the conditions for achieving the expected results. In performing this role, the manager must be well acquainted with the individual differences of his subordinates, as well as some key points of group dynamics.

Оbserver

Monitoring how the organization develops can only be done if the manager permanently receives information about all aspects of its activities. In practice, this is done through consultation with other managers or staff members, requesting or researching different opinions, suggestions, and ideas, and receiving reports, memos, reports, etc.

Distributor

The manager is an element of the communication system. It is he who decides what information to provide to higher management levels or pass on to lower ones.

In doing so, he must have previously filtered and analyzed this information so that it can be transmitted in an appropriate form.

Speaker

The manager's activity of providing information related to the work of the organization makes him a spokesman. In the course of his work, he constantly communicates with people from both the external and internal environments when participating in various forums and events.

Resource allocator

Resources in an organization are always limited. That is why their purposeful and justified distribution is extremely important.

This applies to all types of resources that are necessary for the normal functioning of the organization - material, human, information, and financial. The successful fulfillment of this role not only guarantees the continuity of the activity but also eliminates the possibility of conflicts.

Initiator of changes

Through the management decisions he makes, the manager can become a generator of different types of change in the organization - structural, technological, and behavioral. Very often it becomes a factor on which the result of the change depends. It is important to make a timely decision to implement change, to identify forces for change, to choose strategies and methods for its implementation, and to overcome resistance against change.

All this gives him a leading place in the implementation of organizational change.

Arbitrator

In the event of conflicts in the organization - interpersonal, intergroup, between the individual and the group - the manager must decide on a timely resolution. In doing so, he must be able to identify the causes of the conflict, analyze them, anticipate the consequences, and choose an appropriate method for resolving them.

Leadership roles

Leaders make things different because they are different in themselves. The leader's task is to influence and inspire people who expect guidance and support from him. What distinguishes a leader from the masses is not his gender, age, or occupation.

Nor is their level of education, how much money they earn, where they come from, or who they know. What separates true leaders from other people is awareness and concern for the needs of others.

Leaders inspire others

Resulting leaders inspire others to aim higher, work harder, achieve more in less time, and enjoy what they do. When our company enters the winning round, we can convince others that this was no accident.

Everything was thanks to us and our team, as well as to our good teamwork. And the leader himself has done his job very well.

As a leader, it is very important to be absolutely aware of where we are going and even more important, why we are going there; what makes us do what we do? Because leadership is not a position we hold. It is more of an activity. A leader is simply someone who has the courage to set an example.

The leader lives constantly under the supervision of others. Nothing he says or does goes unnoticed by his followers. Their behavior will then be simply a mirror image of the example the leader has given them.

Prove to be a leader

When a person proves to be a leader, his beliefs, words, and actions make others follow him. 

People will not accept a person as their leader because of his appointment or because he is the owner of the company. They will perceive him as such, because of the man who hides deep inside him.

The leader must be a person of true character who embodies honesty, openness, and true commitment. These things are important because they are the foundation on which everything else is built. He must be ready to serve.

The desire and ability to serve others, as well as the nature of the quality of his services, will be the key to the success of his organization.

We all want those who work in our team to provide the best service for our customers and users. But service is the attitude not a department in our company. Every good leader should know that service starts from above - from him.

It is his duty to "cultivate" his team, to constantly monitor the appearance of fear, doubt, denial, or another kind of negativity that could stifle "his harvest." That is why it is vital that he takes full responsibility for everything.

Managerial qualities

To be good professionals, people must have certain qualities. When it comes to those that are a catch for the success of the manager, we could say that they are extremely diverse. Read more: Different types of managers

The qualities that a manager must possess are the following:

Logical and abstract thinking

For the manager, the tendency to think logically is not unimportant. It finds expression in the search for causal relationships, its ability to make generalizations, to reveal trends. Abstract thinking finds expression in the combination of processes and phenomena and reaching certain conclusions.

Observation and memory

A good manager must have observation and a good memory. Observation is about discovering something specific in the perception of reality, revealing some details that will go unnoticed by other people, as well as storing these impressions for a while.

The very mechanism of memory is different - memorizing names, visual images, and numbers. For example, for managers responsible for personnel management, it is important to remember names, financial managers - numbers and figures, etc.

Ability to concentrate

This is the ability of the manager to direct his mental activity to a concept, content, or object. The success of the manager is related to the concentration on certain content areas.

Creativity

The ability to combine is a prerequisite for understanding and solving emerging problems. The existence of ideas and their transformation into reality is related to the creative activity of man.

Determination

The determination is essential for the manager. He must be ready to act, to take risks. Determination is about perseverance and diligence.

The development of this quality is associated with great tension and effort. It is important for every manager to determine the measure of stress. An inner conviction is also needed to make the decision a reality.

Dynamics

For the manager, dynamics as a quality means a tendency to move, change, initiative, and desire to work. This dynamic largely determines the entrepreneurship of the manager and the desire to achieve a certain positive result.

Reliability

The manager should be a reliable partner in the activity. For this, it is necessary for him to have: a sense of responsibility, psychological endurance, perseverance, discretion, and honesty, to be ethical.

The trust placed in the manager by shareholders, members of the management board, the management team, clients, contractors, and government agencies largely depends on these qualities.

Self-confidence

The manager must believe in his own strength and not allow a sense of hopelessness in certain situations. The manager accepts challenges.

Persuasion

The manager should persuade the people he works with so that they trust him and follow him in taking various actions. This can be achieved if he develops certain qualities such as inner conviction, authority, contact, eloquence, and optimism.

Unfortunately, in practice, it is impossible to have an ideal manager who has the listed qualities. In fact, the manager is also human - he has both positive and negative traits. However, a good manager should constantly strive to develop his qualities in the right direction.

He must be convinced that in parallel with the activity he performs, it is necessary to create conditions and opportunities for improving his own qualities, as well as the qualities of the people he works with. This is the only way that can lead to the growth of any manager and his approach to the ideal.

Leadership qualities

Let's take a closer look at leadership skills using the research of John Maxwell, who is known as America's leadership expert and founder of the Enjoy group, an organization dedicated to helping people maximize their personal and leadership potential.

According to Maxwell, every leader must have the following indispensable qualities in order to be realized as such:

Character: to be hard as a rock

How a leader handles life situations speaks volumes about his character. The crisis does not necessarily create the character, but it certainly reveals it.

Difficulties are the crossroads that put the person in front of a choice - to show character or to compromise. Every time a person chooses the first, he becomes stronger, even if this choice has negative consequences.

Character is more than words - everyone can say they have dignity, but deeds are the true indicator of character. Your character determines who you are. Who you determine what you see. What you see determines what you do. That is why you can never separate the character of the leader from his actions.

Talent is a gift, but character is a choice - character is built every time we make a choice, whether to get out of a difficult situation or delve into it, whether to distort the truth or accept its full weight, to win easy money or to we pay the price.

Character brings lasting success to people - true leadership always includes other people. (As the leadership saying goes, "If you think you're leading but no one is following you, then you're just walking around.") Followers don't trust leaders they know are weak and won't follow for long.

Leaders can't transcend the limits of their character - have you seen people suddenly collapse after achieving a certain level of success? The key to this phenomenon is in the character and is called the "success syndrome". This syndrome says that people who achieve high results but lack a solid character base to help them withstand stress are doomed to disaster.

Charisma: the first impression can make a deal

Most people think that charisma is something mystical, almost inexplicable. They believe that this is a quality that comes with birth or does not develop at all. Simply put, charisma is the ability to attract people to you. Like other qualities, it can be developed if:

We love life - people like leaders who enjoy life. Think about the people you want to spend time with. How would you describe them? Sour? Angry? Depressed? Of course not. These are the people who like to celebrate, not the ones who tend to complain. They love life passionately.

We give the highest appreciation to everyone - one of the best things we can do for people - and which also attracts them to us - is to expect the best from them. It helps people to have a high opinion of themselves, but at the same time, it helps us.

We give people hope - French General Napoleon Bonaparte described leaders as "sellers of hope". Like all great leaders, he knew that hope was the greatest of all riches. If we are able to be the person who presents this gift to others, they will be attracted to us and will be eternally grateful to us.

Share - people love leaders who share and share their life paths. When leading others, give of yourself. Share wisdom, means, and even special moments.

Devotion - it distinguishes the actors from the fantasists

The world does not know a single great leader to whom he lacked devotion. Devotion gives us new strength. For the leader, devotion is everything, because everyone you lead depends on you. Devotion inspires and attracts people. It shows them that you have beliefs.

When it comes to dedication, there are actually four types of people: breakers (people who have no goals and don't commit to anything), lazy people (people who don't know if they will achieve a goal and are therefore afraid to commit. People who go to a goal but give up when it becomes difficult) and everyone else (people who have goals, commit to them, and pay the price to achieve them).

Communication

Simplify your message - communication is not just about what you say. It's also in how you say it. Contrary to many teachers' beliefs, the key to successful communication is simplicity.

Look at the person - successful communicators focus on the people they communicate with. They know that it is impossible to communicate effectively with an audience without knowing something about it. If you want to do better in communication, be audience-oriented. People believe in great speakers because great speakers believe in people.

Tell the truth - Trust is the main condition for great communication. There are two ways to instill confidence in your audience. The first is to believe what you say, and the second is to put into action what you say because there is no greater credibility than a belief turned into action.

Look for a response - when you communicate, never forget that the purpose of any communication is action. If you dump a lot of information on an audience, you're not communicating with it. Every time you talk to people, give them something to feel, to remember, and something to do. If you succeed in this, your ability to lead others will rise to a new level.

Competence: if you build it, the other will only come

We all admire people who show high competence, whether they are precise craftsmen, world-class athletes, or successful business leaders. For this purpose they:

They are present every day - the responsible people are always there when they are needed, but the highly competent ones take one step further. They are not just physically present, they are ready to play no matter how they feel, what circumstances they face, or how difficult the game is for them.

They are constantly improving - like Benjamin Franklin, all highly competent people are constantly looking for new ways to learn, grow and improve. They do this by asking why. After all, the one who knows how he will never lose his job, but the one who knows why, will always be the boss.

Perfection

Experience things to perfection - quality is never a coincidence, it is always the result of high expectations, sincere efforts, intelligent focus, and skillful execution; it is a consequence of the wise choice between many possibilities.

Achieve more than expected - highly competent people always walk one kilometer more. For them, good enough is never good enough.

Inspire others - truly competent leaders do more than get things done at a high level. They inspire and motivate their teams to do the same. While some people rely on such skills to survive, effective leaders combine them with high competence to take their organization to new levels of excellence and influence.

Courage: a brave man is a majority

When an organization makes significant progress, you can be sure that its leader is making bold decisions. The very position of the leader does not give a person courage, but courage can give him the position of a leader.

Insight - put an end to unsolved mysteries

Insight can be defined as the ability to get to the root of things; it relies as much on intuition as it does on rational thinking. Successful leaders need foresight, although even great leaders have not always shown it. Foresight is an absolutely necessary quality for any leader who wants to achieve maximum success. It helps to reach:

The root of the matter

Leaders of large organizations have to deal with great chaos and incredible complexity every day. They are never able to gather enough information to get a complete picture of almost everything. As a result, they have to rely on their foresight.

Organizational foresight does not extend to this narrow-minded concept called rationality. It is achieved in combination with the logic of clear consciousness and powerful intuition. Insight allows the leader to see the partial picture, intuitively fill in the missing pieces, and discover the true nature of the issue.

Increase your ability to solve problems

If you are able to see the root of the problem, you can solve it. The closer a leader is to his area of ​​ability, the stronger his intuition and the greater his ability to see the essence of the issue.

Expand your choice for maximum effect

Never ignore what your emotions tell you, but never think it's enough. Insight does not consist in relying only on intuition, nor only on intellect. It allows you to use both sense and reason to make the best choices for your people and your organization.

Increase your capabilities

Those who lack foresight are seldom in the right place at the right time. Although, according to some observers, the great leaders were just often lucky.

Focus: the clearer it is, the more aware you are

What does it take to have the focus that will make you a truly successful guide? The keys are in priorities and concentration. A leader who knows his priorities but lacks concentration is aware of what needs to be done but never does it.

If he has concentration but no priorities, even if he has achievements, they cannot progress. But when a leader harnesses both, he has the potential to achieve great things. So the important issue is to focus your time and energy rationally.

The strengths of the manager

Focus 70% on your strengths - effective leaders who manage to show their potential spend more time focusing on what they have done well than on what they have done poorly.

The only universal thing is incompetence. Strong performance is always specific! To be successful, focus on your strengths and develop them. There you need to focus your time, energy, and abilities.

Focus on the new

Focus 25% on new things - growth is equivalent to change. If you want to be better, you have to constantly change and improve. It also means entering new areas.

If you dedicate some time to new things related to your strengths, you will grow as a leader. And let's not forget that there is no place in leadership for those who do not grow.

The weaknesses of the leader

Focus 5% on your weaknesses - no one can avoid working on their weaknesses. The key is to keep them to a minimum, and leaders can do that by providing.

Generosity

Nothing can convince others more clearly that a leader is working in their favor than his generosity. True generosity is not accidental. It comes from the heart and penetrates every aspect of a leader's life: time, money, talents, and possessions.

Successful leaders - those that people want to follow - don't just collect things for themselves; they do it to give to others.

Initiative

Leaders are obliged to establish a connection with their followers. But this is not the only area in which leaders need to take the initiative. They must always look for opportunities and be ready for action. What are the qualities that leaders should possess in order to make things happen?

They know what they want - if you want to be an effective leader, you need to know what you want. This is the only way to recognize the possibility when it arises.

They can be forced to act - there is an old saying: "If you want, then you can" Enterprising people do not wait for others to motivate them. They know that it is their responsibility to get out of their comfort zone. And they make it a regular practice.

Risk

They take more risks - when leaders know what they want and can get themselves to act, there is still another hurdle. This is the willingness to take risks.

Innovative people always face risks. But one of the reasons leaders are willing to take risks is because they know that lack of initiative comes at a price.

Mistakes

They make more mistakes - the good news for enterprising people is that they make things happen. The bad thing is that they make a lot of mistakes. Although initiative leaders make more mistakes, they do not allow them to worry. The greater the potential, the greater the chance of failure.

Listening

Use your ears to connect with the hearts of others.

Reluctance to listen is quite common among weak leaders. Peter Drucker, the father of American management, believes that 60% of all management problems stem from the wrong relationship. Many voices demand your attention.

When thinking about how to allocate your listening time, keep in mind that the goals of listening are twofold: to establish relationships with people and to learn. Therefore, you need to keep your ears open for the following people: your subordinates, your clients, your competitors, and your mentors.

Passion - accept life as it is and love it

Professionals spend a lot of time trying to figure out what makes certain people successful. They often look at their credentials, intelligence, education, and other factors. But more than anything else, success is due to passion.

Passion is the first step to achievement - everyone who lives outside the confines of ordinary life has a great desire. This is true in every field: a weak desire leads to poor results - in the same way, that a small fire gives low heat. The more fused your fire is, the stronger the desire and the greater the potential.

Passion increases the strength of will - nothing can replace passion. It is fuel for the will. If you want something strong enough, you will find the willpower to achieve it. The only way to have that kind of desire is to develop a passion.

Passion changes you - if you follow your passion instead of the views of others, you can't help but become a more dedicated and productive person. This increases your ability to influence others. Ultimately, your passion will have a greater impact than your personality.

Passion makes the impossible possible - human beings are so structured that when something illuminates the soul, the impossible things disappear. That's why passionate leaders are so effective. A leader with great passion and little skill always shows better results than one with great skill but no passion.

Positive attitude - if you believe you can, you can

If you want to be an effective leader, having a positive attitude is a must. This not only determines your level of personal satisfaction but also reflects on the way others communicate with you.

Troubleshooting - You can't let your problems be a problem.

Effective leaders always face challenges. This is one of the things that separates the winners from the mourners. No matter what field a leader works in, he will encounter problems. They are inevitable for three reasons. First, we live in an increasingly complex world filled with growing diversity. Second, we interact with people. And third, we cannot control all the situations we face.

Problems

Leaders anticipate problems - because problems are inevitable, good leaders anticipate them. Anyone who expects the road to be easy will constantly find themselves in difficulty.

Truth

Leaders accept the truth - people react to problems in these ways: either they refuse to accept them, or they accept them, and then they come to terms with them, or they accept them and try to fix things. Leaders must always do the last.

Leaders see the whole picture

Leaders must always look at the whole picture. They can't afford to be overwhelmed by their emotions - nor can they get so caught up in detail that they lose sight of what's really important.

One task at a time

Leaders do things one at a time - the ones who most often get into trouble are those who get confused by the size or amount of their problems and then take an amateurish approach to solve them. If you're facing a number of issues, make sure you've really resolved the one you're working on before moving on to the next one.

Leaders do not give up the big task when they are in difficulty - effective leaders know the principle of "rise and fall". They make big decisions when they are on the rise, not during their dark periods.

Relationships - If you get along with people, they will interact well with you.

The ability to work with people and build relationships is absolutely indispensable for effective leadership. If employees need good communication skills, think about how important these abilities are for leaders! Indeed, everyone wants to interact with people they get along with.

And while one could have communication skills without being a good leader, no one can be a good leader without communication skills.

Responsibility

Good leaders never perceive the victim's psyche. They realize that who they are and their situation remains their responsibility - not their parents, spouses, children, the government, bosses, or colleagues.

They face what life brings them and give their best, realizing that they will be given the opportunity to lead the team only if they prove that they can take the ball.

They always do the job to the end, they tend to do more than necessary, they are driven by the desire to achieve the best and they are always productive no matter the situation.

Confidence - competence never compensates for insecurity

No one can live differently in the way he sees himself. If some consider themselves a loser, they will find a way to become one. Every time his success exceeds his confidence, the result is self-destructive. This is true as much for the followers as it is for the leaders themselves.

Uncertain leaders are dangerous - for themselves, for their followers, and for the organizations they lead, because the leadership position multiplies the effect of personal shortcomings. Whatever negative baggage you have in life, it is even harder to carry when you try to lead other people.

Self-discipline - first learn to lead yourself

No one can achieve and maintain success without it. No matter how talented a leader is, his talents will never be realized to the fullest without self-discipline. It gives the leader the opportunity to reach the highest level and is the key to lasting leadership.

A good leader must follow and develop his priorities, turn a disciplined lifestyle into his task, reject excuses, set aside rewards until the job is done, and focus on the result.

The ability to serve - to progress, put others first.

The ability to serve is not related to position or skills. It is a matter of attitude. Surely you have met people who have a bad attitude towards service - the rude employee in the government agency, the waiter who should not be bothered to take your order, the salesman in the store who talks to a friend on the phone instead of discussing you.

Just as you can feel when an employee does not want to help people, you can no less easily sense if a leader is not ready in his heart to do so.

And the truth is that the best leaders want to serve others, not themselves. He puts others before his own program, has the confidence that he must serve, dedicates himself to the service of others, is not interested in rank and position, and serves with love.

The ability to learn - to keep leading, keep learning

Leaders are in danger of being satisfied with the status quo. However, since the leader already has influence and has achieved the given level of respect, why should he continue to grow?

The answer is simple: Its growth determines who it is. It is who determines who it attracts.

Who he attracts determines the success of his organization. If a leader wants to develop his organization, he must develop his ability to learn.

It is important to overcome the disease of the goal achieved, to overcome its success, to give up the shortcuts, to give up his pride, and never repeat the same mistake.

Vision - you can only capture what you can see.

Seeing is all about the leader. It is absolutely irreplaceable. Why? Because seeing leads the leader. It paints the target. It ignites and ignites the inner fire and makes the person move forward. It kindles the fire in those who follow such a leader.

Managerial styles

The manager's leadership style can be seen as a set of knowledge and skills, qualities, way of interacting with subordinates or other managers, the methods of work he uses, and the way he performs managerial roles.

The various elements that make up a leadership style are the reason for its diversity. Nevertheless, organizational theory offers a classification of leadership styles based on the basis of some general characteristics of managerial behavior.

Authoritarian style

The characteristic of this style is the lack of information from subordinates about the ultimate goals of the organization and what is expected of them as a contribution to their achievement.

The manager who adheres to this style prefers to maintain formal relationships with his subordinates, distancing himself from them and fending off any attempts to shorten this distance.

There are two varieties of authoritarian style in the literature:

Exploitative style

With it, the manager personally makes all decisions without trusting his subordinates and without seeking their opinion when developing options. The main ways to motivate people are the fear of punishment, threats, and pressure.

Benevolent management style

The manager treats his subordinates condescendingly and sometimes is interested in their opinion, although subsequently, it has no bearing on decision-making. Also with this variety, some independence in the performance of tasks is possible.

This style of leadership leads to the strengthening of centralism in government and its bureaucratization. In practice, this means not allowing cooperation and teamwork, but the strict implementation of all decisions taken by the various management wounds.

In this way, efforts are focused on small, unimportant things, and the main thing, the perspective remains in the background.

Authoritarian style

The authoritarian style is not particularly suitable for the management of modern organizations. However, its use in crisis situations is justified, when it is required to achieve greater efficiency of the management impact.

The democratic style

The democratic style is the complete opposite of the authoritarian one. This style is characterized by the following:

• the distance between the manager and his subordinates is reduced;
• management decisions are made using primarily group methods;
• the motivation of the subordinates is done by strengthening their interest in the final results;
• delegation of more rights and responsibilities to subordinates;
• the control function is performed mainly through self-control and mutual control;
• Democratic style can exist in two forms:

Consultative form of management

In this form of management, the manager is interested in the opinion of subordinates, consults with them, and strives to use all good suggestions. Incentives predominate in incentive mechanisms, and penalties are used only in exceptional cases.

Subordinates are extremely satisfied with such leadership and refuse exceptional help and support in achieving goals.

Participatory form

This form of management presupposes the complete trust of the head of his subordinates in all matters. In achieving the goals, he relies exclusively on teamwork, and subordinates are seen as collaborators and partners.

The democratic style of leadership is most often used in modern organizations, as it stimulates the creativity and initiative of staff and helps to maximize its potential.

However, it is not suitable for situations that require quick decisions. In addition, the democratic style should not be used when subordinates lack the necessary discipline and the professional and qualification level is not in line with the set goals.

Liberal style

This style of management stimulates the creativity and initiative of subordinates to the greatest extent. The essence of this style is that the manager sets the tasks for the contractors, creates the necessary working conditions, and determines the rules and limits of deviation.

His role is to advise and advise subordinates, if necessary. It also provides the necessary information and evaluates the results achieved.

In this style of management, subordinates are given rights and responsibilities regarding decision-making and their implementation. In this way, they are given the opportunity to show their potential. This in turn motivates them to make even greater efforts in the future.

High level of education

The liberal style of leadership is appropriate to use when the leaders are characterized by a high level of education and qualification and are able to self-organize and self-control.

At the same time, this style can lead to the bureaucratization of management, when the entire management activity is handed over to subordinates and some of them begin to experience themselves as leaders, and they also start using authoritarian methods.

In this situation, the leader only gives the appearance that he is leading, but in reality, he becomes dependent and is not able to make decisions and take any action alone.

The results of studies related to the use of different types of leadership styles show that, in the end, pure type is not found in practice.

As a result, opportunities are beginning to be sought for the search for and use of a more appropriate style of leadership, as a result of which the so-called situational style is reached.

Situational style

The characteristic of this style of management is the cooperation between the manager and the subordinates in solving the problems arising in the organization, which are typical in different situations.

Therefore, in the search for solutions, each situation must be diagnosed and analyzed jointly by the manager and his subordinates.

This leads to the development of group solutions to overcome the situation.

The manager, who adheres to the situational style of leadership, has authority, which is built primarily on his ability to guide his subordinates and participate with them in the search for a way out of situations. In this style, the effectiveness of leadership is higher as a result of the use of motivational mechanisms inherent in each situation.

Important for the situational style is the development of a sense of empathy in subordinates in achieving goals.

The manager who uses this style helps to maintain open internal communications, which in turn leads to a reduction of interpersonal and intergroup conflicts.

Questions and Answers

What is the primary distinction between a manager and a leader?

The primary distinction between a manager and a leader lies in their roles and approaches. A manager is typically responsible for overseeing day-to-day operations, coordinating resources, and ensuring tasks are completed efficiently. In contrast, a leader focuses on inspiring and guiding others towards a common vision and goal, empowering and motivating team members to achieve beyond their individual capabilities.

How do managers and leaders differ in their focus?

Managers tend to focus on organizing and coordinating resources, setting specific goals, and ensuring tasks are completed according to established processes and timelines. Their emphasis is on efficiency, productivity, and adherence to procedures. On the other hand, leaders concentrate on motivating, empowering, and aligning their team members with a shared purpose and vision. They emphasize collaboration, creativity, and adapting to changes and challenges.

What are the qualities commonly associated with effective managers?

Effective managers are often associated with qualities such as strong organizational and planning skills, ability to delegate tasks effectively, adept at problem-solving and decision-making, good communication and interpersonal skills, and a focus on meeting deadlines and achieving targets.

What are the characteristics typically attributed to successful leaders?

Successful leaders are often characterized by qualities such as vision and strategic thinking, emotional intelligence and empathy, excellent communication and persuasion skills, the ability to inspire and influence others, a growth mindset, and a commitment to fostering a positive and inclusive work culture.

How do managers and leaders handle challenges differently?

Managers tend to address challenges pragmatically, seeking practical solutions based on existing processes and procedures. They are often concerned with maintaining stability and meeting short-term goals. In contrast, leaders approach challenges with an emphasis on innovation and creativity. They encourage their team members to think outside the box, adapt to changing circumstances, and view challenges as opportunities for growth and learning.

What is the scope of authority for managers and leaders?

Managers typically have formal authority granted by their position within the organization's hierarchy. They have the power to assign tasks, make decisions, and hold team members accountable. Leaders, on the other hand, may not hold formal authority but can exert influence through their expertise, vision, and ability to inspire and gain followership.

How do managers and leaders foster team development?

Managers foster team development by providing training and skill development opportunities, setting performance goals, conducting regular performance evaluations, and facilitating collaboration among team members. Leaders foster team development by creating a positive and inclusive work culture that encourages innovation, offering mentorship and coaching, promoting a shared vision and values, and supporting employees' personal and professional growth.

Can a person be both a manager and a leader simultaneously?

Yes, a person can effectively combine managerial and leadership qualities, often referred to as being a "managerial leader." In this capacity, the individual demonstrates strong management skills in coordinating tasks and resources while also providing visionary leadership to inspire and guide their team towards shared goals.

What is the impact of managers and leaders on organizational culture?

Managers have a direct impact on the day-to-day work culture, ensuring tasks are completed efficiently, and enforcing organizational policies and procedures. Their leadership style can influence the work environment and team dynamics. Leaders play a more significant role in shaping the overall organizational culture by setting a compelling vision, defining the company's values, and encouraging behaviors aligned with the organization's mission and goals.

How do managers and leaders contribute to employee engagement and motivation?

Managers contribute to employee engagement and motivation by recognizing individual and team achievements, providing constructive feedback and performance evaluations, and offering opportunities for professional development and growth. They play a crucial role in creating a positive work environment and supporting employees in their day-to-day tasks. Leaders, on the other hand, contribute to employee engagement and motivation by inspiring a sense of purpose and shared mission, fostering a culture of trust and transparency, and empowering employees to take ownership of their work and contribute to the organization's success.

What is Lean Six Sigma (6 sigma explained)

Author: Anna Wagner

What is Lean Six Sigma?

Six Sigma is a structured method based on statistical tools and techniques to improve the process, applied in the principles of project management, aiming at both customer satisfaction and achieving ambitious strategic goals.

The essence of the Six Sigma concept

The 6σ model is a statistical method for improving the quality of processes from the consumer's point of view. It determines service levels and measures deviations from them.

This method is completely "customer-oriented". It is based on the eternal rule - "to satisfy customers, you must produce quality products."

The Six Sigma methodology was created by Motorola's manufacturing division in the 1980s. It was subsequently adopted by other major manufacturers such as General Electric and Honeywell International.

Today, CIOs from a variety of industries are beginning to implement it because it requires continuous process improvement based on facts and quantitative indicators, as well as its ability to quickly and successfully eradicate shortcomings in the company's work and processes.

Quality philosophy based on aggressive short-term goals in forming a long-term perspective:

• Goals - 3 to 6 months;
• Perspective - over five years.

The 6 Sigma approach provides:

An effort to identify all organizational operations affecting the quality of products and services;

Detection of defects in the performance of these operations;

Providing measurement of each operation and subsequent efforts to improve it.

Management style and 6 Sigma

6 Sigma is more than a refinement project. Top management and leaders of the organization study the tools and approaches of the concept (new ways of thinking, planning, and working) to achieve practical results, thus creating a specific organizational culture. Read more: Manager or Leader: What are the differences and similarities

The 6 Sigma concept is a real attempt to work smarter, not harder.

Statistical concept

To measure processes through the defect number parameter. Reaching the 6 sigma level means that only 3.4 defects per million possibilities occur during the analyzed process. It is aimed at reducing the variability of processes and stabilizing the characteristics of processes and through them the products and services.

Sigma (Latin letter name)

A statistical term is a measurement parameter that is also called standard deviation. When this letter is used in business, it indicates the number of defects in the process output and determines how different the process is from the perfect one.

A comprehensive methodology for improving business processes. The number of defects per unit of output or million events is used for measurement, but in fact, the goal is:

• Elimination of unproductive actions;
• Reducing the time of the production cycle;
• Increasing profits.

User-oriented measurements are used, aiming at continuous improvement at all levels.

The long-term goal of 6 Sigma

Development and implementation of processes, including administration and service, that are so perfect that several defects per million events are measured at levels.

Features of Six Sigma

• Active participation of the top management in the "six sigma" projects;
• Management based on analysis of facts and data;
• Orientation at all levels in the organization to the user;
• Process orientation of all types of activity;
• Demolition of organizational barriers;
• Striving for a very high level of defect-free;
• Unified methodology for solving problems

Basic principles of the 6 Sigma concept

The number of defects per unit of output and the number of defects per 1 million events are standard measurements that can be applied to all aspects of any enterprise: production, development, services, and administration.

It is mandatory to conduct intensive staff training with the subsequent deployment of project teams for:

• Increasing profitability;
• Reduction of production and other activities;
• Reducing the production cycle time.

It is important to use corporate sponsors responsible for the activities of the project teams. These sponsors provide the mechanisms needed by the teams to:

• Overcome resistance to change;
• Receive additional resources;

They keep the teams from deviating from the strategic goals of the organization.

Green and Black belts

The Six Sigma Implementation Program trains qualified experts to improve business processes (called "green belts", "black belts" and "leading black belts"). They must be able to apply qualitative and quantitative tools to improve processes to achieve strategic business goals.

All indicators for measuring the process are identified in advance, and their meanings should reflect the business results before and after the changes, as well as their role in the final result.

Objectives (tasks) are set, oriented to a magnitude of improvement one order of magnitude (10 times) higher.

The training and implementation of the concept last from one to three years. During this period, certified experts in business process improvement lead the project teams.

Basic principles 6 sigma

Sincere interest in the client

In this approach, customer orientation is brought to the fore.

Examples:

The client with his needs and expectations is a specific parameters when considering the level of defect-free;

The quality of improvements is determined by the degree of customer satisfaction.

Database and fact management

In the Six Sigma system, the concept of "factual management" is used at a higher and qualitatively new level.

The implementation of the Six Sigma systems includes:

Clarify which criteria play a key role in measuring the effectiveness of the organization;

Analysis and data processing, which are performed based on the key variables to optimize the results.

Process orientation

In the Six Sigma system, every action or operation is considered a process. Whether it is product design, measuring results, increasing efficiency, customer satisfaction, or managing the organization as a whole, the basic principle remains the same: The process is the engine of success.

Proactive management

Proactivity means anticipating events with actions. Proactive management is a launching pad for creativity and effective change.

In practice, proactive management means:

Setting ambitious goals and their constant updating;

• Accurate distribution of priorities;
• Preventing problems instead of dealing with their consequences;
• Asking questions like "why do we do this" instead of saying "this is what we do".

Cooperation without borders

Effective cooperation both within the organization and between organizations is extremely important.

Huge sums are lost every day due to a lack of coherence, even hostility between groups, which must work together in the name of the common cause - creating added value for the client.

Six Sigma creates an environment and management structures conducive to effective teamwork.

Six Sigma supports the collaboration by:

Allows associates to see their role in the organization and its perspective;

Teaches them to identify and measure the interdependencies between operations at all stages of the overall process;

It enables them to understand the real needs of end users;

Determines the place of each in the chain of transformations that accompany the passage of the product through the process of production and marketing. Read more: Market research. Definition and classification of market research

Striving for perfection

Organizations that stand in the way of the Six Sigma path must always strive for perfection, approaching it without ever being able to achieve it, as consumers' perceptions of perfection are constantly changing.

At the same time, they are condescending to individual failures and seek to manage them.

Practice shows that:

• Each victory is associated with many losses;
• He who does not sin does not win;
• New ideas and approaches are always associated with certain risks.

Reasons for the success of the concept

The literature discusses the various reasons for the success of the 6 Sigma concept, and in general, the key success factors can be summarized as follows:

A high degree of organization - all activities are carried out within projects, each of which has established goals, deadlines, budget, distribution of rights and responsibilities and assessed risk, detailed records, etc.

Orientation to the final financial result. no project receives approval if its final result in the form of profit is not determined

Existence of built infrastructure - providing the improvement activity with the necessary resources.

Using an integrated approach - combines the orientation to process organization with fuller use of the human factor.

Combining the tools for improvement in one system - effective use of well-known and powerful methods with the help of well-trained teams.

A time-tested and proven approach (MAIC cycle) for the implementation of improvement projects

Leadership and active position of top management

Making decisions based on facts, not assumptions - a developed information system.

6 sigma methodology

Six Sigma is a registered trademark of Motorola, which includes a structured approach to improving business performance, as well as a toolkit with a set of statistical and non-statistical methods.

It is used for:

• Development of new processes, products, and services (DMADV tools);
• Cheaper and process automation (DMADDD toolkit);
• Improving existing processes, products, and services (DMAIC tools).

Concept 6 Sigma pays special attention to reducing the instability of the processes to a level where the resulting deviations are so insignificant that there is no need to correct them.

This requirement is satisfied by the level of 3.4 defects per million possible defects, which corresponds to a process stability level of 6σ. It is this parameter that is basic in the methodology for improving all key processes of the organization.

More on the topic: What is Scrum?

Sigma level

Motorola sets the sigma level in defect units per million chances of a defect or error.

This mathematical norm made possible the emergence of such a system, which is universally applicable to all goods, services, and processes.

The application of a common standard for measurement allows to set achievable short-term and long-term quality goals and to measure the respective results. The sigma parameter was developed to help:

Concerning the consumer

To formulate indicators of activities concerning the consumer for which they pay real money. Many of the indicators used by companies (working hours, costs, sales volume) do not interest the consumer at all.

To create a single method for measuring and comparing different processes. Using the Sigma scale, everyone can compare the performance of completely different processes - for example, the manufacture of blanks and the delivery of furniture.

Understanding the sigma indicator and its meaning starts from the moment it is established what exactly the consumers want. In 6 Sigma, consumer requirements and expectations are considered critical to quality and hence to company success.

Route map 6 Sigma

The following sequence is used in the implementation of the concept:

1. Identification of key processes and users;

2. Defining consumer expectations;

3. Measurement of current results;

4. Setting priorities, analysis, and implementation of improvements and innovations;

5. Expansion and integration of the Six Sigma system.

Measurement

1. Selection of the characteristic to be changed

2. Setting standards of work

3. Confirmation of measurement system

Analysis

4. Establish the capabilities of the product

5. Setting goals in terms of productivity

6. Detect the source of deviations

Improvement

7. Review of potential causes

8. Finding the relationships between variables

9. Establishing operational tolerances

Control

10. Confirmation of measurement system

11. Determining the possibilities of the process

12. Implementation of process management tools.

The control methodology Six Sigma and its roles

Within the framework of the six sigma concept, a certain business environment and infrastructure are created, through which the implementation of this approach is carried out and the culture of the organization is built.

The Six Sigma concept is not implemented by senior executives (although its role is too important), nor is it guided by middle management (although its involvement is mandatory).

The ideas, solutions, and improvements that result from the implementation of 6 Sigma are generated and implemented by the "front end" of the organization.

Companies that have taken the path of Six Sigma strive to delegate as much responsibility as possible to employees working directly with consumers.

Strong leadership

Six Sigma is a system that combines strong leadership, team energy, and universal participation.

The list of persons who can be called agents of 6 Sigma includes:

• The projects are implemented by cross-functional teams.
• Team leaders wear a "black" or "green" belt.
• Leaders are helped by a "champion" and a "process owner".

Champions and sponsors

One of the senior executives knows the ideology of the concept and actively works for its implementation (for example, the executive vice president of the company).

In addition, the following definitions are used:

Champions - informal leaders who use the 6 Sigma methods in their daily activities and share these ideas at every opportunity.

Sponsors - the owners of processes that support the Six Sigma initiative and coordinate the relevant activities within their responsibilities.

Master of the black belt

Persons with high technical and organizational skills. They provide technical guidance for 6 Sigma programs.

Black belt masters must:

• Know everything the black belts know;
• Understand statistical methods and be able to apply them in non-standard situations;
• Be able to train in the use of statistical methods for the black and green belts, as well as to check their activity.

They are fully engaged in training and mentoring.

Black belts

Persons who have undergone training and special program training and are engaged in work on Six Sigma projects from 50 to 100% of their time.

Training scheme - a week of training and then three to four weeks of application of the studied methods in the workplace in the process of implementing the next 6 Sigma project, then again a week of training, etc.

They are responsible for measuring, analyzing, and managing key processes and are fully engaged in this activity.

Green belts

Leaders of specific projects, leading the respective teams. They received a reduced training course (6-10 days), and unlike black belts spend for a project of 6 sigma only a small part of their time.

Yellow belts

Most often temporary workers who have undergone introductory training on DMAIC instruments, consciously participate in the work of the team led by the black and green belts.

6 sigma agents

The approximate number of agents is as follows:

Criterion - the number of staff 1000 people and 100 million dollars turnover

Black Belt Master - 1

Black Belts - 10 (1 black belt per 100 staff and $ 10 million turnovers)

6 Sigma projects - 50:70 per year (5: 7 black belt projects per year)

Average savings per project - 150 to 240 thousand dollars.

Training agents 6 sigma

The full "belt" Six Sigma must go through many levels of serious theoretical and practical training.

The preparation of a real, internationally-certified "black belt" is possible in many countries. The candidate is trained for four to five months. At the same time, a week spent abroad alternates with three weeks of practice in the organization.

The cost of such a learning process is in the range of 15-20 thousand dollars.

Integrated Lean Six Sigma concept

The concept integrates the capabilities of two proven practice approaches to building an effective organization.

Adaptive production

The ability of the organization to respond flexibly to changes in market conditions, achieving significant results by applying the principles of Economic Production and 6 Sigma.

Economical production

Abbreviated designation of the desire to reduce losses, simplify production procedures, and speed up the introduction of new products.

The table shows that in the concept the answers to the question "How to organize the activity" are taken from 6 Sigma, and to the question "What to do?" - mainly from the concept of Economic production.

In doing so, the Lean Six Sigma concept uses a unified set of measurable indicators and a unified set of methods and tools to improve processes.

Basic elements of the concepts

Six Sigma Concept

• The concept of "Economic production"
• Integrated Lean Six Sigma concept
• Formalized management responsibilities
• Formalized distribution of resources
• Formalized training and distribution of responsibilities and authorities
• Graduation of the specialists involved in the project (category "black belt", etc.)
• Realization of the concept in the format "problems, selection and implementation of projects"
• Short-term improvement projects - Kaizen (Read more: What is Kaizen?)
• Monitoring using metrics
• Using the DMAIC principle in the implementation of projects
• Using statistical methods to reduce process variability.
• Detection and elimination of losses and non-productive costs in the process.
• Increasing the speed of the process
• Reducing losses from "diversity"
• Elimination of losses from "savings"

Xerox demonstrates the benefits of Six Sigma

The company has successfully applied the promising methodology for the optimization of processes related to the replenishment of stocks

Finding the balance between minimum stocks in the warehouse and a high level of customer satisfaction is known among specialists in the field of inventory management as the task of the "Holy Grail".

Indeed, this is a rather ambitious goal, as it is always difficult to predict how many parts and consumables will be needed to meet needs in the future.

But it was this task that was highlighted as a priority for Xerox in the analysis of a series of projects aimed at increasing efficiency. Thus, the company's team set about solving it and at the same time applying 6σ for the first time.

6σ methodology

The 6σ methodology provides a structured project management system in the company, based on the systematic collection and statistical analysis of data.

The activity is developed in the form of projects. Each project aims to improve the economic aspect of the processes and to meet customer expectations while achieving a certain financial result.

The introduction of 6σ in the numerous structures of Xerox around the world has been underway since 2002 and is a personal initiative of the company's CEO Anne Mulcahy.

In addition, the methodology, which is aimed primarily at eliminating defects and achieving quality, is introduced in combination with the popular "Lean" approach for organizing flexible production, aimed at reducing losses and increasing process speed. Read more: What is Lean and MVP

The implementation of Xerox Lean Six Sigma

Deployment of the Xerox Lean Six Sigma began more than two decades ago with employee training. The 3-level courses and the accompanying tests are conducted online.

Everyone at Xerox is certified for the initial level of competence - "yellow belt" according to the terminology of 6σ.

Xerox customer service professionals already have a "green belt" certificate - the next higher level of competence that requires longer training - both online and in-person courses, more tests, and experience in a completed project.

An important step for the Xerox team is the selection of the first project in which the Lean Six Sigma approach will be applied.

Principle of Pareto

After analyses conducted on the principle of Pareto, the optimization of the process of filling the stocks, focused on increasing customer satisfaction and at the same time reducing the number of orders for spare parts and consumables by courier, was highlighted as a task of the highest priority.

We work with companies that use high-end Xerox machines on a subscription basis and we have arrangements for the maintenance and provision of consumables within certain deadlines. We must be 100% perfect so that their business processes are not disrupted.

To be able to react on time, Xerox maintains a warehouse with consumables and spare parts. In many cases, it is necessary to order parts and consumables by courier, as various factors change the needs of customers.

Reducing the level of expensive courier orders

The company aims to improve the level of their satisfaction while reducing the level of expensive courier orders, without allowing unnecessary stocks, and with minimal downtime of parts and consumables in the warehouse. These are several contradictory goals between which a balance must be struck.

Starting our work on the project, we focused on a small part of the warehouse - consumables and often replaced parts for large black and white production plants.

The idea was that by finding a solution that worked, we could then easily apply it to the rest of the warehouse. We focused on the parts and consumables for these machines because they provide a significant part of the annual income of the service.

Step by step to the goal

According to Xerox representatives, one of the most important steps in implementing a 6σ project is defining the problem - defects could not be eliminated if we did not know what they were.

This first step of every 6σ project starts outside the organization and focuses on answering the question of how we can make customers more competitive, which is critical to their success.

Properly defining what exactly customers want is extremely important to increase their satisfaction.

In addition, in this phase, the scope and duration of the project, the team members, the main input, output, and process parameters are determined.

Value creation from a customer and business point of view 

All stages of the process that do not lead to value creation from a customer and business point of view are identified and all sources of loss of funds and time are identified.

The measurement step follows. The main goal at this stage is to collect statistical information on the relevant process parameters and later based on this information to analyze the current process.

The data collected in this step is also used to compare the old and already improved process.

In the analysis phase, the collected statistical information about the input and output parameters of the process is evaluated and the main reasons for the unsatisfactory results are determined.

Based on their impact on the result, they are prioritized. This makes it easier to find solutions that eliminate the root causes of the problems. This is the most interesting and thought-provoking stage.

The next step is improvement - the most creative stage of the 6σ project when potential solutions to the causes of the problems identified in the previous stage are sought.

In this phase, Xerox decided to optimize the process of filling stocks, using the methods of statistical analysis.

Winning decisions

The main new point in the actions taken to optimize the warehouse is the introduction of the so-called. "buffer warehouse" - a quantity to serve as a reserve in case of possible problems with the delivery time, the quality of the materials, and small fluctuations in the cost.

A service factor has also been introduced, which shows in how many of the 100 cases the part is available in the warehouse. This factor also takes into account the expected level of customer satisfaction and varies depending on the nature of the application of the machines - production, office, home, etc.

Another input parameter is entered, which takes into account the monthly fluctuation of the expected fingerprint volume.

Constant customer feedback allows a more accurate prediction of future consumption of consumables and spare parts. Statistical methods prove that optimized warehousing and optimized customer interaction are more closely linked than they seem at first glance.

For example

Christmas is approaching. Users of Xerox machines in companies for printing services, advertising houses, photo studios, etc. enter the phase of active loading. By collecting preliminary information from them about the expected volume of copies,

Xerox will be able to meet their needs. Thus, the printing service companies will be able to meet the intensified demand in the specific period and, accordingly, to achieve higher profits. In the long run, this means expanding their business and eventually buying new machines.

Results

In defining the problem, Xerox aims to:

• Eliminate courier orders for consumables and reduce courier orders for spare parts from 9% to 5%;
• to prevent an increase in the average stay of consumables in the warehouse, which is 28 days;
• to reduce the average stay in the warehouse of frequently replaced spare parts from 75 to 65 days.

With the introduction of the Lean Six Sigma methodology, an approach has been adopted in which the replenishment of the warehouse is based on the cost of parts for previous periods, as well as on the expected volume of fingerprints.

The optimal quantities to be kept in stock are calculated as a function of variations in cost, delivery time, order interval, and set customer satisfaction level. The number of cases in which a part is needed and missing in the warehouse decreases. The structure of the warehouse is improved and the stocks are reduced.

The team's expectations

Overall, the results of the Lean Six Sigma implementation project exceed the team's expectations. For August and September, the goals have been exceeded in all indicators:

• courier orders for consumables and frequently replaced parts are eliminated;
• the average stay of consumables in the warehouse is reduced to 24 days (13% over fulfillment of the target);
• the average stay of frequently replaced spare parts in the warehouse is reduced to 51 days (21% over fulfillment of the target).

"Lean Six Sigma is a universal approach that can be used by any company to optimize observable and measurable business processes. As a result, it leads to increased customer and employee satisfaction and reduced costs," said Violeta Antonova.

Conclusion

It is important to understand 6 Sigma correctly - this methodology is not just about product quality, where only 3 defects per million are at the core of the system. But at the same time, it is what is important for the client, whether it is an internal or external problem.

It is focused entirely on creating added value - both for the customer and the market. For example, Polaroid had sales of over US $ 2 billion in 1988 and operated very well on the stock exchange.

It started with the introduction of Six Sigma and sometime around 1997, it became a 6 sigma company. In late 2001, they filed for bankruptcy.

The reason for this was the fact that Polaroid focused only on the quality of the products, without making a full assessment of the needs of customers and the market.

Questions and Answers

What is Lean Six Sigma?

Lean Six Sigma is a powerful and widely-used methodology that combines the principles of Lean and Six Sigma to improve business processes, enhance quality, and increase operational efficiency.

What are the key principles of Lean Six Sigma?

The key principles of Lean Six Sigma are reducing waste, improving process flow, and minimizing variation to achieve higher levels of productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction.

How does Lean Six Sigma work?

Lean Six Sigma follows a structured approach known as DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control). It involves identifying process issues, measuring performance metrics, analyzing data to identify root causes, implementing improvements, and establishing control mechanisms to sustain improvements over time.

What are the benefits of implementing Lean Six Sigma in organizations?

Implementing Lean Six Sigma in organizations can lead to significant benefits, including reduced costs, increased efficiency, improved product and service quality, better customer satisfaction, and enhanced decision-making based on data-driven insights.

What types of industries or sectors can benefit from Lean Six Sigma?

Lean Six Sigma is versatile and applicable across various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, finance, information technology, logistics, and service-based sectors, among others.

How does Lean Six Sigma help in waste reduction?

Lean Six Sigma aims to identify and eliminate various types of waste, such as overproduction, excess inventory, unnecessary transportation, waiting times, defects, and overprocessing, which ultimately streamlines processes and reduces costs.

How is Six Sigma different from Lean, and how do they complement each other?

Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation and improving quality, while Lean concentrates on eliminating waste and optimizing flow. By combining these methodologies, Lean Six Sigma addresses both quality and efficiency aspects of processes, making it a comprehensive approach to continuous improvement.

What are the various levels of Six Sigma certifications?

Six Sigma certifications are typically categorized into different belt levels, including Yellow Belt, Green Belt, Black Belt, and Master Black Belt, each indicating varying levels of expertise and responsibilities in driving improvement projects.

What is the role of data analysis in Lean Six Sigma?

Data analysis is fundamental to Lean Six Sigma. It involves using statistical tools and techniques to measure process performance, identify root causes of issues, and make data-driven decisions for process improvements.

How can organizations sustain Lean Six Sigma improvements over time?

To sustain Lean Six Sigma improvements, organizations must establish control mechanisms, monitor process performance, provide ongoing training to employees, engage in continuous learning and improvement efforts, and ensure leadership commitment to the methodology.

Strategies for stress management in the organization

Author: Charlotte Bergeron

Stress is a problem of modern organizations

Stress became a problem for modern organizations in the 1980s. In the European requirements for work and work, organizational stress became an independent and significant social problem after 1992.

Organizational stress as a societal problem should be distinguished from other related concepts such as workplace harm and harmful working conditions. The topic of stress occupies an increasingly wide place in the research of many scientists.

To develop the problem of stress management, we need to make a brief retrospective of the problem of the nature of stress.

History of the term "stress"

The word "stress" means pressure, deformation, tension. This term was first used in psychology and medicine by the Canadian physician Hans Cellier in the mid-20th century. He talks about stress whenever the body responds to stimuli from the outside or inside with a reaction of activity.

Dr. Cellier deals primarily with the body's reactions or so-called biological stress. His research marked the beginning of the development of a problem that would gradually become an object of interest not only for medicine but also for psychology and sociology.

They became the basis for the further development of the theory of mental stress. To begin with, however, we will trace the problem of biological stress.

Biological stress

Of interest to us are the reactions of the organism when the conditions of its existence change. These reactions will further be related to mental stress. We will find that when we often get into conflicts daily, we work in conditions of time shortage, when we do not do our job successfully, when a loved one is ill, etc., the same reactions of the body appear, but their type and nature depends on the individual.

In one person they will be pronounced and disturbing, while in another they will be barely perceptible. Thus, Hans Cellier found that the factors that cause biological stress (stressors) are different, but the body responds uniformly to each of them.

Even in different people, the biological reaction is standard, ie. is not specific. This effort of the human body to adapt to constantly changing conditions, such as a sudden change in ambient temperature, cold, injury to the body, burns, frostbite, loss of large amounts of blood, situations requiring extreme physical exertion, etc. n., is nothing but a desire for adaptation, i.e. for survival and adequacy to the environment.

Namely, and this is what Celie calls the set of the observed uniform reactions of the organism "general adaptation syndrome", ie. the effort of the organism, as a whole, to adapt to the changing external conditions (Celie, 1982).

Celie finds that the body responds by activating the autonomic nervous system, increasing the work of endocrine glands, increasing heart rate, raising blood pressure, etc., which is a sign of the body's preparation to meet the challenges. These physiological reactions are present whenever the individual is exposed to such influences.

The body's stress response is important

The body's stress response is something useful and vital. Nature created man in such a way that it endowed him with the ability to survive abrupt changes in the natural environment in which he exists. In the Stone Age, when the achievements of civilization were imminent, and primitive man was daily exposed to the danger of being attacked by animals or the like, of injuring himself, of starving, of freezing, or of being exposed to very high temperatures, and so on. , his body has automatically adapted to all these stimuli.

The reaction to any of these stimuli was the same. It was determined by the peculiarities of the mechanism that controls and regulates the body's processes. This mechanism is the autonomic nervous system. It is outside the central nervous system and consists of two functionally separated parts called the sympathetic and parasympathetic (vagus).

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is associated with the activity of the individual and leads to increased metabolism. The frequency and strength of contraction of the heart muscle increases, the amount of blood sent to the internal organs increases.

The irrigation of the working skeletal muscles and the heart muscle increases and the irrigation of the digestive organs decreases. The bronchi dilate to increase oxygen flow. Increases the secretion of sweat glands. The pupils dilate.

The activity of the gastrointestinal tract is greatly reduced. When the parasympathetic nerve is activated, the overall metabolism decreases, the frequency, and strength of the heart contraction decrease, respectively the amount of transported blood decreases. The bronchi contract.

Only the activity of the pancreas increases, the gastrointestinal tract is activated. Cellier's theory is not accepted unanimously in the scientific community because it takes into account only biological factors, without paying attention to mental processes. R. Lazarus changes the approach to stress analysis.

If Cellier, in developing the "general adaptation syndrome," focuses on the nonspecificity of reactions, Lazarus proves that mixing physiological and mental levels leads to a misunderstanding of stress.

The same physiological reaction can occur both in connection with the physiological impact of the body and in connection with the impact of psychological factors, such as the loss of a loved one, conflicts in the family and at work, etc. in this sense, mental stress does not always lead to expected reactions.

In this theory, stress is studied in the context of a two-way, dynamic, ever-changing interaction between the individual and the environment (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus, 1991). 

Mental stress

The system-forming factor in the study of mental stress is the subjective assessment of the degree of the extremity of the situation and the ability of the individual to cope with it.

Lazarus views assessment as a cognitive mediator of the stress response that mediates the requirements of the environment and the hierarchy of the individual (Lazaras, 1970). or if the individual assesses that a certain situation is dangerous for him and he does not have the opportunity to cope with it, a physiological and mental reaction, defined as mental stress, occurs.

The physiological components of this reaction are the same as in the biological stress described by Cellier. The mental components of this reaction are associated with the appearance of anxiety, worry, depressive experiences, loneliness, and more. how a situation is assessed and the own resources for dealing with it are significantly influenced by personal characteristics, the most important being the individual experience in dealing with such situations.

If we want to rationalize the explanation of mental stress and the resulting changes in the body, we can say that when a person is under the influence of strong emotional stimuli, the primitive mechanism in the human body is activated.

The organism prepares for survival, although nothing threatens it directly. Physical activity is the most direct way to deal with the effects of mental stress.

An essential point in the theory of mental stress is the problem of the process of coping with stress. Coping is defined as cognitive and behavioral efforts to minimize the negative consequences for the individual and manage the inconsistencies of the relationship "person-environment". coping is about effort, not an outcome.

In this regard, in recent years, the classifications of coping models have increasingly relied on the classification given by Lazarus and my collaborators (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). They define stress management strategies as:

Problem-focused coping with stress

These are active strategies for dealing with stress. They are aimed at seeking information about the problem, planning actions and activities to achieve a positive result.

This type of coping is successful in assessing the situation as controllable. If the situation is perceived and assessed as uncontrollable, the second type of coping is usually present.

Emotion-focused coping with stress

These are passive strategies for dealing with stress. Efforts are focused on controlling emotions - escape in the realm of fantasy, distancing oneself from the situation, emphasizing the positive (seeking positive meaning in the situation), unloading (reducing tension by expressing emotions, use of alcohol, cigarettes, etc., physical exercises, autogenic training, meditation, etc.), self-isolation, self-blame. Read more: Emotions management

Mixed methods

It is also possible to deal with stress in a mixed way, focusing on both the problem and the emotion. This strategy is linked to the search for social support.

Model of J. Ivankevich and M. Matson on work stress

To clarify the interaction between the work environment and man, we will use suggestions from J. Ivancevich and M. Matson's model of work stress.

The proposed model shows the relationship between stressors, stress, and its consequences as an impact on work efficiency and mental comfort of individuals.

In the current model, 4 categories of stressors are considered, ie, factors that cause mental stress in organizations:

Physical environmental stressors: light, noise, temperature, polluted air, climatic features, physical fields.

Individual stressors

Role conflicts - the incompatibility between the various roles that a person has - the role assigned to the organization and the role outside it;

Role uncertainty and ambiguity - occurs in case of insufficient experience or case of ambiguity resulting from the inconsistency of role requirements coming from different sources;

Workload - quantitative or classification; the quantitative overload concerns the situations in which many actions have to be performed, and the qualification overload - the situations in which insufficient competence to deal with the obligations is assessed;

Responsibility for people.

Group stressors

Group stressors are disturbed relationships in the group in which the individual functions in the organization. It is believed and proven in many empirical studies that good relationships in the working group are a key prerequisite for human well-being and high productivity (Cooper, 1973).

V. Iliev connects the good relations in the cadet divisions with the higher mental readiness for flying activity in the cadets. Among the preconditions for disrupting the relations in the working group are the misunderstandings regarding the status levels and the role obligations.

Organizational stressors

Organizational stressors are insufficient participation or respect for the opinion of the individual in making organizational decisions or the need to constantly make decisions; characteristic organizational structure.

Some studies show that job dissatisfaction and stress are at significantly higher levels, and coping with work is at a lower level than bureaucratic, inflexible organizations, while in lighter, flexible organizations there is an opposite trend (Donnelly, J. H., & Ivancevich, J. M, 1975).

The negative consequences of work stress, when it is not properly managed, in the proposed model are classified according to the idea of ​​Cox (Cox 1978).

Subjective effects - anxiety, aggression, apathy, loneliness, depression, fatigue, low self-esteem, irritability.

Behavioral effects - alcoholism, drug abuse, emotional irritability, overeating, increasing smoking, impulsive behavior.

Cognitive effects - inability to make decisions, low concentration, hypersensitivity to criticism, mental blockage.

Physiological and health effects - increase in blood sugar, increase in heart rate and blood pressure, dry mouth, sweating, dilation of the pupils, hot and cold waves, heart attacks, constipation, disorder, and more.

Organizational effects - low productivity, dissatisfaction with work, reduced organizational loyalty and performance, alienation of individuals from each other in the workgroup, delays in work, absence from work.

The consequences of work stress

Ivankevich and Matson emphasize that when examining the consequences of work stress, we must keep in mind the following points:

There is a connection between stressors at work and the physiological, mental, and emotional changes in the individual.

Response to stressors can be measured through self-assessment, performance appraisal, and biochemical tests.

There is no universal list of stressors. Each organization has its own, unique chain of such.

Individual differences are those that explain why some stressors unbalance one individual while challenging another.

A significant place in the proposed model is occupied by the moderators of the relationship between stressors and the consequences of work stress. A moderator is a condition or characteristic that qualifies the relationship between two variables. The effect can be to strengthen or weaken the connection. The main characteristic of the variables serving as moderators is their function as homogenizers of a set, by forming homogeneous subgroups.

Predicting the behavior of individuals in the subgroup

The psychological homogeneity of the individuals in a certain subgroup is greater than the homogeneity of the whole population. This allows easier prediction of the behavior of individuals in the subgroup.

All mental, physiological and demographic features that are known to have a homogenizing effect can be used as variable moderators. In the proposed model 2 groups of moderators are considered.

The first concerns demographic characteristics, such as gender, age, education, health status. The second group of moderators is cognitive-effective. These include social support, type A behavior, and important life changes.

The concept of social support has been introduced in psychology, sociology, and medicine in recent years in connection with the developed theory of stress and overcoming stressful effects of a social nature. It expresses the observed connection between stressful situations, social relationships, mental health, physical health of the people involved in them.

Relationship between social cohesion and adaptation to the environment

Research conducted in different environments - schools, barracks, etc., shows a positive relationship between social cohesion and adaptation to the environment. It is these relationships that reduce stress and contribute to the mental well-being of individuals, in psychology is defined as "social support".

Social support does not work by itself, but depends on its adequate perception by individuals, ie. its impact is mediated by individual characteristics. Emotional support. Includes expression of concern, sympathy, empathy.

This type of support is considered to be central to others and has the strongest impact on people's mental well-being and physical health. Information support.

Defined as support through management. It is the provision of timely information and advice to the environment and oneself, in which the individual can make better decisions and be more appropriate to the situation.

Susceptibility to stress from humans

In the 1950s, medical researchers M. Friedman and R. Rosenman discovered that there was a significant relationship between behavioral characteristics and cardiovascular disease.

They describe a behavioral form that they call "type A behavior," which is highly stress-related and related to people's susceptibility to stress.

By "type A behavior" they mean a behavioral-emotional complex that is observed in people who are aggressively involved in a constant struggle for more and more achievements in a shorter time, regardless of other people's resistance and obstacles.

People with such a behavioral complex are characterized as follows:

• They are in a state of chronic struggle, striving to achieve as many things as possible in a very short time;
• They show aggression, impatience, fighting spirit, competitiveness, strong incentive to compete;
• They speak harshly and explosively, they are impatient in the face of impending events;
• When they have managerial functions, they constantly put pressure on their subordinates;
• They are impatient, they hate waiting;
• They rarely find time to rest;
• They self-assess by the number of achievements;

The importance of managers' evaluation

Usually, they need to evaluate their superiors, not their colleagues. Criticism of managers is particularly painful.

The opposite type A behavioral complex is type B behavior. People with "type B behavior" are exempt from the characteristics of "type A behavior."

They have a healthy balance between personal ambitions and the reaction to public expectations and demands. Important life changes in an individual plan are related to the loss of a loved one, the change in family status, change of job, change of home, etc. In such events, a person becomes more vulnerable to stress.

As a reaction caused by the perceived and assessed imbalance between the requirements of the situation and the ability to respond to these requirements, stress can be functional and dysfunctional. Given that the perceived requirements are far below the capabilities of the individual, stress does not arise.

Moreover, the accepted requirements may not be a sufficient incentive to achieve an appropriate achievement of the activity.

Given the accepted requirements, moderately exceeding the assessed capabilities of the individual, this imbalance can serve as a motive for increasing the activity, to mobilize additional psychophysiological resources in meeting the challenges. In this situation, stress is functional.

An imbalance between the requirements of the situation and the capabilities of the individual

However, when the perceived imbalance between the requirements of the situation and the capabilities of the individual is so great that the individual sees a threat to his physical health or mental harm, the resulting stress is dysfunctional.

The negative consequences of work stress are the symptoms that can be used to judge the nature of the individual response. In this regard, the purpose of stress management is to use it as a natural and productive force.

The task of stress management is, depending on the situation, to create conditions for its manipulation to those levels that are functional for individuals and help to increase the efficiency of their activities, without any psychophysiological damage to them. In this regard, 3 states of the problem are possible.

First, given that stress is functional, stress management involves activities to channel activity to increase achievement.

Second, given that stress is dysfunctional, stress management involves efforts to reduce it to a level that is tolerated by individuals.

Third, given that the abilities of individuals exceed the requirements of the situation, the task may be related to increasing the level of stress to the point where the desired achievement of the activity will be obtained (Prince II 1985).

The place of stress in organizational life

Stress is a psychological concept that describes a person's condition when he is under pressure. Stress is a person's reaction to a critical situation. Several factors make stress possible in an organization. 

They could be grouped as follows:

Factors related to the work environment, power relations, and communication in an organizational context;

Factors arising from individual differences between people working together in groups and organizations. 

The importance and relative weight of work and organizations as a stressor

The importance and relative weight of work and organizations as a stressor is constantly increasing. Personal and psychological causes as a source of stress today recede into the background. New advanced technologies, new management initiatives, total quality management, etc. Industrial factors and organizational reasons greatly increase the stress of work.

The social dependence of stress has become so great, especially in developed countries, that legal and social institutions are forced to update labor legislation. In the laws and regulations of some countries, the legal term "workplace stress" appears, analogous to the more common concept of harmful work.

Stress in an organizational and traditional environment. Stress is an inevitable moment and a natural product of the interaction of every healthy and mature person with the work environment. Stress is a means of dealing with uncertainty and risk.

Both characteristics are natural social characteristics inherent in the enterprise and organizations to a greater extent than in the household, family, and informal groups. Stress in the organizational and work environment has some independent and extreme forms of manifestation such as the so-called. the phenomenon of "burnout".

The phenomenon: "burnout" occurs after prolonged exposure to stressors. It occurs when the following set of symptoms coexists:

• Prolonged action of stressors;
• Emotional exhaustion and loss of interest in work;
• Feeling helpless and powerless to change anything in your work;
• Depersonalization and frustration.

Professional burnout

Stress in the form of burnout is a reaction in people who until recently valued their work very highly. Banrout is present when the individual feels closed in his organizational and professional role as trapped.

Burnout stress is most common in large bureaucratic organizations. It is typical of people who think they can't change anything in the organization. It is also typical for people who are not competent enough for a certain type of activity.

Burnout is more common in organizations that do not have mechanisms in place to promote the best employees. In organizational behavior today are analyzed specifically the so-called. "Burnout professions". In them, the phenomenon occurs much more often than the others.

They often coincide with the so-called risky professions. Burning professions are medicine, brokerage, the profession of financial analysts, pilots, and air traffic controllers. The main causes of organizational stress are rooted in the fact that organizational behavior is role behavior. Man is a performer of a certain social role, ie. of a system of certain expectations of others to him.

Stress is caused by some manifestations of role incompatibility. The incompatibility between the roles can be resolved positively or negatively depending on the person's personal qualities. A social role could become a source of stress in different ways. Each of them determines the uniqueness of the specific type of organizational stress.

The dichotomy of roles is the first most common mechanism. A dichotomy of roles is evident when one cannot assert the following judgments about oneself:

• "I can predict what others will expect from me tomorrow"
• "I am aware of what is required and expected of my work"
• "There are procedures in my work to deal with any emergency"
• "I have enough information to work in the best way I can."

Role duality

Role duality is exacerbated by the increasing uncertainty of work and the "blurring" of work responsibilities. It increases in terms of teamwork, which increases the need to develop special qualities and habits for teamwork.

The second mechanism by which organizational stress arises is the change of roles. This is the most common case when starting a new job. To avoid and reduce stress in such cases, it is important to get to know, introduce to the organization and gradually take on a new role.

The vague new environment causes some people more stress and even more trauma than others. Studies show that about 30-40% of employees are stressed when changing roles. In organizational behavior, the term predisposition to role innovation has recently become necessary to compare the behavior of individuals when changing roles.

Combining the role of the person in the organization with external roles is in itself a source of stress. Roles that are related to activities on behalf of the organization and their presentation to the outside world have a higher level of potential stress.

The roles performed constantly in changing external conditions are of the highest degree of stress. Third, the mechanisms of stress are manifested in role conflict. It usually arises as an extreme incompatibility between the expectations and requirements of the role in the organization and the family and private life.

Role conflicts in employees

Organizational behavior assumes that the employee is in a situation of role conflict, which can be a source of stress if he responds with "I completely agree" or "I completely disagree" to the following statements:

• "My work and my family are two completely separate areas"
• "What they demand of me at work and what they demand of me in the family are two very different things."
• "My family expects things from me that differ from my understanding."

These and other similar questions in the studies are designed to clarify the degree of interpenetration between roles. The lack of such mutual penetration is a sign of role conflict. Read more: Conflict management.

In any organization, the most common stressors are related to the characteristics of the situation, which are decisive in the decision-making process. Among these stressors in organizational decision making are the following:

• Pressure time lack of time and congestion;
• The peculiarities of the formal and informal power relations in the organization, ie. insufficient power combined with the responsibilities that the individual has;
• The type of organizational culture with its characteristic elements.

The stress of making a decision

Decision-making stress is a characteristic form of managerial stress. The first special studies of managerial stress began in the last few years. According to them, this manifestation of stress in decision-making has the following characteristic features in behavior:

• Definiteness of thinking;
• Feeling of lack of a proper solution to the problem and showing this feeling;
• Misinterpretation of new information;
• Tendency to make an instant decision without sufficient consideration and to prefer such a decision if there is another possibility.

Coping with organizational stress

Coping with organizational stress is possible through managerial influence and personal self-management and self-improvement.

To realize them, it is necessary to know those personal factors on which coping with stress depends. In general, the difference between people regarding stress is expressed through the concept of the so-called. stress thresholds. It is a subjective characteristic that describes the threshold of individual sensitivity to stressors.

People have different internal resources to deal with stressful situations. The stress threshold depends primarily on the following personal factors: temperament, self-esteem, experience, individual differences, etc. A very important factor related to the behavior of stress, the locus of control. The internal locus of control is a stressor.

The attitude to stress is related to the theory of distinguishing the so-called. type A and type B individuals. Recently, various strategies for dealing with stress have been proposed, which are part of the so-called stress management. These strategies are based on the following 3:

• Avoidance
• Escape
• Adaptation.

The organization must help employees

The organization could help its members cope with stress by paying attention to the development of the communication skills of managers. Read more: Attitude management.

Second, there are administrative approaches to mitigating stressors that are related to how organizational positions are designed. Finally, the organization could apply various social support techniques to people in positions who are deprived of opportunities for full social contact.

They look for ways to balance communication in the workplace and in leisure time. The purpose of the various strategies for dealing with stress could be formulated as follows:

• Self-harmonization
• Social integration
• Ability to meet the changes and requirements of everyday life.

Three stress management strategies for managers

People fall into organizational stress not because of what they do, but because of what they don't do and just think about it. The essence of stress reactions shows that managers have 3 options for stress management strategies.

The first concerns the manipulation of the accepted and current requirements of the environment.

The second concerns actions to alleviate the dysfunctional responses to stress in subordinates.

The third possibility is related to the assessment and subsequent results of the perceived and current capabilities of subordinates.

The stress management procedure begins when the manager assesses that the individual level of stress is not at the optimal point. Stress management can also rely on the individual capabilities of subordinates - perceived and current ones, to perform specific tasks.

Strategies are aimed at changing their capabilities through training, qualification, and training or improving self-confidence in the process of performing tasks.

The use of these strategies requires from the manager a clear idea of ​​the current capabilities of subordinates, an idea of ​​the capabilities needed to perform the specific task, and the mismatch that exists between them.

His actions are aimed at correcting the possibilities in the direction necessary for the purpose. This is done through courses, training, retraining, etc. in carrying out these actions, the manager should answer at least the following 3 questions:

• Do subordinates have the necessary skills and individual abilities to respond to the requirements of the specific situation?
• How realistic is the relationship between the training situation and what the individual employee will encounter in the real situation?
• Is there another way to complete the tasks and achieve similar results?

Strategy for changing personal perception

An essential strategy for changing the personal perception of personal opportunities to respond to the situation is the individual work with each subordinate. This is the most difficult but most fruitful strategy.

This approach does not necessarily lead to a change in the current capabilities of subordinates but reduces the level of stress since there is a more realistic assessment of their capabilities, which increases the willingness to act in the specific situation.

Managers can indirectly influence individual opportunities to meet the requirements of a variety of tasks by focusing on physical health. Medical research is clear, a healthy person can better meet the physiological and mental effects of stress than an unhealthy one.

The concept of a healthy body as a stress balance is not, and many organizations implement programs to improve the physical health of the people who work in them. The emphasis on physical training in organizations where stressful situations are expected is fully justified and helps to better meet the challenges.

Managers should help to improve the conditions and manner of conducting physical training in these organizations.

The manager must help his subordinates to manage individual stress responses

To maintain the required level of achievement from subordinates, the manager must be willing to help his subordinates manage individual stress responses appropriately to overcome inappropriate behavioral, physiological, and psychological responses. Inappropriate coping with stress and behaviors related to avoiding certain actions are observed by the manager. Read more: Manager or Leader: What are the differences and similarities

On this basis, he is able through a system of incentives and coercion to regulate the behavior of subordinates. Ie managers serve as a link in the feedback of each individual regarding the expected behavior.

A possible approach to changing the behavior of subordinates is the personal example of managers. The use of a psychorelaxation technique can make a significant contribution to coping with dysfunctional stress. These include meditation, autogenic training, music therapy, sports, and more.

The meaning of using these techniques is that it reduces the excitement in the brain, respectively - anxiety as a mental factor. In case of severe signs of high anxiety or depression, the manager should seek professional help from psychologists and psychiatrists.

In emergencies, when intolerable levels of stress are perceived, debriefing is essential to preserve people's mental health. It is a supportive, individualized, psychologically protective process of communication between individuals in a small group with a group leader, which provides clarity and comprehensive expression of individuals' experiences of the disaster.

Debriefing

The debriefing is usually conducted by the immediate supervisor with the help of a psychologist as soon as possible, immediately after the event. Such an approach helps individuals develop the ability to deal with the consequences of a situation.

The aim is to reconstruct what happened to conclude the future work of the group in the direction of increasing its effectiveness. At the same time, the accumulated emotions and internal conflicts, both group and individual, must be released.

After the debriefing, the feeling of anger and mistrust generally disappears because the individual member of the group hears others thinking about what happened. Questionnaires disappear, everything becomes clear, and with them, anxiety, self-blame, and inferior experiences disappear.

One of the strategies that are always in sight for managers is social support. People reduce their current level of stress when they receive social support. This technique is especially important and vital in the period of the initial organizational socialization of employees.

The power of social support as a buffer against stress has been proven in local military conflicts in recent years. Social support is of particular scientific interest for many researchers in the field of military psychology. 

Optimism

Optimism ensures a happy existence and long life. In one study, one hundred healthy young men were divided into pessimists and optimists based on the answers they filled out in a questionnaire. Their health was monitored for the next two decades.

At about age 45, most pessimists showed signs of chronic illness, including heart attacks and arthritis. At the same age, optimists suffered much less from these health problems and remained in better health in their later years. An optimistic outlook can help you regain your health, even if you suffer from a serious illness.

Pessimism

These findings do not deny the vital role of pessimism. When adequate, pessimism can help you reduce stress and avoid costly mistakes, as pessimists are often more able than optimists to look at reality clearly and directly.

If the cost of a failure can be significant, such as the decision to say or do something that can ruin an important relationship, a good strategy is to switch to a pessimistic wave, considering the worst possible outcome.

Self-blame for failure

When things are not going well and your explanations of the reasons are not limited to the specific situation, you blame yourself and perceive each failure as another in a chronicle of obstacles, your point of view is overly pessimistic and your stress level is likely to remain high. Pessimism, a major source of over-stress, arises from irrational thinking.

To control stress and make sure that critical situations can be managed through positive behavior, change your attitude towards the way you look at unexpected obstacles, mistakes, and disappointments. Don't fall victim to your biography.

The history of past obstacles should not predetermine future failures - it is up to you not to allow it. Examine each situation as objectively as possible, preferably when you feel rested and relaxed. Look for rational and optimistic explanations.

Setting clearly defined goals

Setting clearly defined goals turns out to be useful. When you have to deal with unexpected things or find yourself in an extreme situation, it becomes much easier to decide which of your other responsibilities you could immediately reject, postpone or prefer.

Sometimes we are to blame for our mental chatter: we undermine our self-confidence and our self-esteem by engaging in internal conversations focused solely on our mistakes. By doing so, we significantly increase stress.

Even people who look confident and relaxed can suffer from high levels of stress from anxiety. Such worries may be constantly swirling in your head or suddenly coming to mind - usually in the early hours of the day - making you feel scared and depressed.

All stressful events provoke a reaction from the affected person. This is usually a feeling of insecurity, expressed in nervousness, depression, hopelessness, helplessness.

These sensations increase or decrease depending on a person's ability to cope with them. We do not differ in the causes of stress, but in the way, we react to them and the ability to cope and overcome them.

Positive aspects of stress

Most of us try to avoid stress, but there are quite a few people who are happy to look for the challenges of the environment. They gladly accept the confrontation and cope well with stressful situations in everyday life. In his book Stress Without Distress, Hans Cellier, an endocrinologist who developed the theory of stress, proves these potentially positive aspects of stress.

Cellie distinguishes between stress and the failure of intentions and hopes, followed by the collapse (psychophysiological) of the individual, which is painful, and other types of stress, such as environmental challenges.

The excitement that stress brings us makes our deeds and lives more interesting, successes no more desirable and joyful. Stress is necessary, but not so great, to cause distress.

Imagine an exam in which some of the students submit their exam papers early. If we have tested students on how they feel about stress in stressful situations, we will see that those with a test covering a high degree of tension and anxiety, in this case, experience the event painful.

They have not finished their exams yet and seeing that some are already finished, they start blaming themselves that they are not ready yet: “I don't understand this problem! I will never finish on time! How did they end up? ”

These are the most common self-accusations, which further increase nervousness and anxiety. In contrast, students with a measured low rate of anxiety and nervousness pay little attention to who submitted their exam papers when.

They usually say to themselves, "Anyone who finished so early probably didn't deal with the problems."

And in most cases they are right. In both the cases described, with the speakers and with the students, the attention is focused on one's personality and the situation that everyone is facing is personalized.

Naturally, these are individuals who have shown high levels of nervousness and tension during pre-testing.

Other people try to resolve the situation in the best possible way for them, judging what happened more objectively.

Another factor influencing the process of coping with stress

Another important factor influencing the process of coping with stress is the nature, amount, and timing of the available information. Particularly suitable for characterizing the importance of this factor is the saying: "He who is warned is armed."

The information is like a guide that gives passengers an idea of ​​what to expect. The more information we have about the nature of the stressful situation: when it will occur, how long it will last, what are the preliminary symptoms, etc.; the more likely we are to find ways and means to prevent or reduce the consequences. Accurate determination of the occurrence of a stressful situation contributes especially much to the emotional state of an individual.

The more accurate his predictions, the less likely he is to be stressed or succumb to unnecessary feelings.

For example, the training of astronauts includes training for actions according to a preliminary plan in the event of all possible extreme situations. In this way, each of the emergencies is reduced in the performance of routine operations. Stress most often occurs when there are no preconceived thought structures or action plans.

Conclusion

Stress is a concept that describes the mental state of a person formed as a result of all kinds of pressure to which life puts him. The concept of stress is a terminology introduced by Hans Cellier and has already received sufficient attention and development in the literature.

The presence of stress is practically inevitable in any work environment and many of its elements are a natural product of the interaction of a healthy human personality with the environment. However, in their extreme forms, described in the specialized literature as "distress", this phenomenon leads to the accumulation of tension and to more or less damage in the emotional and mental sphere and even in the physiology of the individual.

There is usually more than one cause of stress, but many studies prioritize "rupture," the role incompatibility between work life and the rest of a person's life. Stress management in the organization is an element of the management process.

This is a problem that directly corresponds to the effectiveness of people's activities on the one hand, and the other hand to their health and well-being as individuals. Closing one's eyes to this problem is nothing but a sign of low management culture and questionable morals. The fastest way to reduce stress is to change your attitude towards the current stressful situation.

As the Roman author, Epictetus says: "Man is upset not by things themselves, but by his point of view about them." Shakespeare paraphrased this sentence in Hamlet's words: "There is nothing, good or bad, that has not been made by our thinking."

Philosophers and physiologists have agreed for centuries that more often than not, our perception of events, rather than the events themselves, causes excessive stress.

One of the most popular tips is: "Relax. Be calm. Do not worry." This is often easier said than done. Many people complain that they do not know how to relax. The word "workaholics" may be a good way to describe this type - they are so absorbed in their work that even their vacations are stressful.

Relaxation of the mind is a key element of the process of physical relaxation. Some of us relax through strength training, others through active hobbies, and still others through meditation or active relaxation exercises.

Questions and Answers

Q1: Why is stress management important in the organization?

A1: Stress management is essential in the organization because prolonged and unmanaged stress can have detrimental effects on employees' physical and mental health, leading to decreased productivity, increased absenteeism, and higher turnover rates. By prioritizing stress management, organizations can create a healthier and more supportive work environment, enhancing employee well-being and overall organizational performance.

Q2: What are common sources of stress in the workplace?

A2: Common sources of stress in the workplace include heavy workloads, tight deadlines, excessive responsibilities, unclear expectations, lack of control over one's work, conflicting demands, interpersonal conflicts, role ambiguity, and fear of job insecurity.

Q3: How can organizations create a stress-aware culture?

A3: Organizations can create a stress-aware culture by fostering open communication and encouraging employees to share their stress-related concerns without fear of judgment. Providing training and workshops on stress management techniques can help employees identify and cope with stress effectively. Additionally, promoting work-life balance and offering resources like counseling services can contribute to a stress-aware and supportive work culture.

Q4: What role does leadership play in stress management?

A4: Leadership plays a critical role in stress management. Supportive and empathetic leaders who lead by example can reduce stress levels by providing clear expectations, recognizing and appreciating employee efforts, and offering assistance when employees face challenges. Transparent communication about organizational changes and involving employees in decision-making processes can also alleviate stress caused by uncertainty.

Q5: What are proactive strategies for stress prevention?

A5: Proactive stress prevention strategies involve addressing stress triggers before they escalate. Conducting regular workload assessments to ensure reasonable demands on employees, providing adequate resources and support to handle job demands, and offering stress management training can help prevent stress from reaching unhealthy levels.

Q6: How can organizations support employees in dealing with stress?

A6: Organizations can support employees in dealing with stress by offering flexible work arrangements, such as remote work or flexible hours, to facilitate better work-life balance. Providing access to wellness programs, such as yoga or meditation classes, promoting physical activities, and encouraging regular breaks can also help employees manage stress more effectively.

Q7: What are effective stress reduction techniques for employees?

A7: Effective stress reduction techniques for employees include mindfulness and meditation exercises to promote relaxation, deep breathing exercises to manage stress responses, engaging in physical activities like yoga or exercise to release tension, pursuing hobbies or creative outlets as a form of stress relief, and seeking social support from colleagues and friends to share and cope with stressors.

Q8: How can teams collaborate to manage stress collectively?

A8: Teams can collaborate to manage stress collectively by fostering open communication and creating a supportive atmosphere where team members can express their stressors and challenges. Distributing tasks and sharing responsibilities can prevent individual overload, and team members can provide assistance and support to each other during high-pressure periods.

Q9: How can organizations measure the effectiveness of stress management strategies?

A9: Organizations can measure the effectiveness of stress management strategies through various means. Employee surveys and feedback sessions can gauge employees' perceptions of stress levels and their experiences with stress management initiatives. Tracking absenteeism rates and productivity levels can also provide insights into the impact of stress management efforts. Additionally, conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with employees can offer qualitative feedback on the effectiveness of implemented strategies.

Q10: What are the long-term benefits of effective stress management in the organization?

A10: The long-term benefits of effective stress management in the organization are numerous. It can lead to improved employee well-being and job satisfaction, resulting in higher retention rates and lower turnover. Reduced stress levels can enhance overall productivity and performance, leading to increased efficiency and effectiveness. Moreover, fostering a stress-aware and supportive work culture can contribute to a positive organizational climate and reputation, attracting and retaining top talent.

Skills and roles of the manager

Author: Alexander Jonas

To perform his activity effectively, the manager must have certain basic skills (qualities), regardless of the level at which he is, the nature of his work, etc.

Of course, different levels and areas of management require a complex combination of skills. Managerial skills are the second main component of a manager's job.

What are the important skills of the manager and what roles he performs?

The skills of the manager are usually divided into three groups: technical, humanitarian (human), and conceptual.

Technical skills

Technical skills include the ability to know and be able to use the tools, techniques, tools, and procedures to perform a job.

Technical skills have a relatively high weight at the lower and middle management level and relatively little importance at the senior level.

Humanitarian skills

Humanitarian skills refer to the ability to select, guide, and guide people, both individually and in groups. To be effective, the group technologist in question must know the qualifications of the other technologists to properly select the members of the group.

He must also know what motivates these technologists, how to structure relationships and information connections, what direction to give to do a good job. Humanitarian skills are very important for all three levels of management because, in the end, each manager does most of his work with the help of other people.

Of course, the number of people with whom the manager interacts is the highest at the grassroots level and the lowest at the top level.

Conceptual skills

Conceptual skills are related to the ability to see the big picture of the organization, how different parties interact, how a change in one part of it can lead to a change in the other parts.

Conceptual skills have arguably the highest weight at the top level of management because it is senior managers who must be able to see the "whole picture", the complexity and mechanisms of joining parts of the whole organization in a constantly changing external environment.

Managerial roles

Henry Mintzberg defines managerial roles as "an organized set of job-related behaviors." Determining the place and role of the manager in the distribution and implementation of management tasks can be done using the classification of H. Mintzberg of the ten characteristic roles of the manager, which in turn are divided into three main groups:

Personal

They derive directly from the official authority of the leader and suggest basic interpersonal relationships. The first is his role as a nominal head (figurehead). As head of a company or division, each manager must perform certain ceremonial duties. Read more: Manager or Leader: What are the differences and similarities

He represents the company or his entrusted unit in all official cases or formal matters. Managers are responsible for the work of the people in their unit. From this point of view, their activities determine the content of the role of the leader - the second role in this group. Some of these activities involve leadership directly.

The leader determines the relationship between management and subordinates - motivation, distribution of responsibilities, and specific tasks. For example, in many organizations, managers are usually responsible for hiring and training their staff.

In addition, there is indirect management of the leadership role. Each manager must encourage employees by aligning their individual needs with the goals of the organization in a certain way. The influence of managers is most clearly seen in their role as leaders.

The official government dresses them in great potential rights, the leadership largely determines what part of them will be realized. His position allows him to play a connecting role - the third role in this group - in which he interacts with colleagues and others outside the company.

The role of the relationship is manifested in the contacts that the manager makes outside the vertical line of power. These are contacts inside and outside the organization, aimed at maintaining good relations with people who are not directly subordinate to him or to whom he is not subordinate, but on whom to some extent depend on the work and relationships in his unit.

Information

Information roles are related to the collection, processing, and transmission of non-routine information. By the numerous interpersonal contacts with their subordinates and various others, managers represent the "nerve center" of their unit.

The manager can know everything, but in general, he knows more than his subordinates. In his role of leader, the manager has official, and under certain conditions, easy access to each member of staff.

Moreover, his contacts in the role of liaison "subject" him to external information, to which his subordinates often do not have access. Many of these contacts are with other managers of equal status. In this way, the manager creates a powerful information base.

Information processing is a key part of a manager's job. They do not leave meetings or hang up to return to work. To a large extent, it is communications that are their job. These informational aspects of management work are described through three roles in this group:

Observer (supervisor)

As an observer (supervisor), the manager constantly carefully checks the environment for information, asking questions in his contacts in the role of liaison and his contacts with subordinates.

Thus, from his verbal contacts, he receives partial information, very often in the form of rumors or hints.

Distributor

In his role as a distributor, the manager transmits some of the "privileged" information directly to his subordinates, who would otherwise not have access to it.

When the subordinates themselves do not have convenient contact with each other, the manager can pass the information from one subordinate to another.

Spokesperson

As a spokesperson, the manager sends certain information to people outside the unit. The president of the organization gives a speech to lobby for the cause and the head of the production recommends a modification of the product to a customer.

In addition, as a spokesperson, each manager must inform and thus satisfy the influential people who control the organization or its subdivision. For a business manager, for example, this may mean keeping the head of the office informed about the work of the organization.

Making decisions

The work of the decision manager is described in four roles. Work related to information roles is not an end in itself, but a basis for decision-making. One thing is clear from the research on management work - managers play a key role in the decision-making system in their organization. Read more: Decisions making

Based on his official authority, only the manager can engage in new important areas of action, and as a "nerve center," only the manager has complete and up-to-date information to make decisions that determine the strategy of the organization or the unit.

Entrepreneurial role

As an entrepreneur, the manager seeks to improve the organization (unit), to adapt it to changing environmental conditions.

While the entrepreneurial role describes the manager as a voluntary initiator of change, his role as manager describes him as a person who is forced to react to tensions. The pressure of the situation is too strong to ignore, so the manager must act. Read more: Strategies for stress management in the organization

Disruptions in work occur not only because weak managers ignore situations until they finally end up in a crisis, but also because even good ones cannot foresee all the consequences they take.

Allocation of resources

The third decision-making role is a resource allocator. The manager is obliged to decide "who will take what". Perhaps the most important resource that managers allocate is their own time. In addition, the manager is also responsible for building the organizational structure - the model of formal relationships that determines how work should be distributed and coordinated. Read more: Program resources management

Again, as a resource allocator, the manager approves the important decisions of the organization to begin their implementation. By exercising this right, he guarantees the interdependence of decisions.

This right supports his otherwise fragmented decision-making process and "defocused" strategy. There are many interesting features when a manager approves decisions made by another. One of the most important circumstances that are observed is the common practice in choosing the problem with the approval of the draft decision to choose the person instead of the proposal.

This means that the manager approves projects proposed by people whose opinions he trusts.

Mediation

The last role of the decision-making manager is his role as a mediator. Managers spend a lot of time negotiating. These negotiations are an integral part of the manager's job, as only he has the official authority to engage the organization's resources in "real-time" and the information from the "nerve center" that is needed in important negotiations.

It should already be clear that these ten roles cannot be easily separated from each other, that they form an integrated whole.

None of the roles can be removed and the work left intact. For example, a manager without contact contacts will not have enough external information.

As a result, this manager can neither disseminate the information that employees need, nor can he make decisions that adequately reflect external conditions. In the context of the above, that the ten roles form an "integrated whole" and require important management skills, we should add one more thing.

Great practitioner

The manager is a "great practitioner." This "special role" underlies and integrates all ten roles described by Mintzberg. The analogy with the "great practitioner" is borrowed from the medical world and comes down to the fact that the manager in this role is the first "receiver" of the problems.

Whatever role he chooses, he has to deal with the problems first, decide if something is a problem and if so, what kind of problem it is.

• In other words, he must:
• Identify the symptoms in the situation
• To reveal the causes of the problem
• Decide how problems can be solved
• To begin the solution of the problem

At all these stages, the manager can use expert help or advice, but the responsibility for each of these stages lies with him.

Time management

Having looked at the types of managers and their skills and work, it is interesting to see how the time of the different managers is distributed to perform each of the five functions. Read more: The five functions of Fayol's management

There is a lot of research in this direction, as well as opinions denying the meaning of such research. For example, the famous H. Mintzberg writes: “If you ask managers what they do, they will most likely tell you that they plan, organize, coordinate, motivate and control.“ Then watch what they do. Don't be surprised if you can't connect what you see with the above words.

Managers do not regularly devote enough time to perform their basic management functions, because it is wasted on unnecessary conversations, solving problems that can be solved by lower levels of management, unorganized communications, etc. Read more: Time planning in project management

For all their conventions, however, studies of the structure of the working time of managers lead to some important conclusions:

Senior, middle, and grassroots managers

First, senior management uses most of its time for planning (average 35%) and change (average 20%) and the least part of its time for leadership and control (average 10%).

Second, middle managers spend most of their time organizing (leading an average of 25%) and leading (an average of 40%), as these managers are primarily responsible for implementing the strategies and plans of senior management. Read more: Different types of managers

Third, grassroots managers are mostly concerned with leadership (55%) and control (average 20%) and least with change (5%) and planning (average 10%).

The peculiarities of the working hours of managers

There are other important data on the peculiarities of the working hours of managers, reflecting not only the levels but also the nature of the activity. All of them show that the natural process of career movement from the lower, through the middle, to the higher level is an important condition for the gradual accumulation of experience in all functions, for the acquisition of skills necessary for highly effective work.

One of the main elements in the structure of the expenses of the working hours of the managers is the meetings. Their main purpose is to solve problems and tasks that require collective discussion. They are an effective form of exchange of information and experience between managers and structural units. 

Meetings

According to their purpose, the meetings are to solve specific problems and to generate new ideas. Depending on their nature, they are administrative, informational, consultative, explanatory, coordinated, and problematic.

According to their purpose, they are related to the development and decision-making, the organization of the implementation of a decision, the evaluation of the results of the implementation of a decision, the solution of current production tasks.

The preparation of the meetings

The preparation of the meetings is one of the most important conditions for their effectiveness. It includes:

• Assessment of the need for the meeting
• The clear contents of the agenda
• Determining the specific participants in the meeting
• Sending invitations to participants
• Determining the approximate duration of the meeting
• Preparation and provision of the necessary materials to the participants
• Determining the most appropriate time and place for the meeting
• Preliminary distribution of participants by places, etc. 

Holding a meeting is a responsible activity

Holding a meeting is a particularly responsible activity and the following rules must be observed: starting at the exact time, a short introductory speech by the facilitator with a clear statement of the purpose, highlighting the problems and recalling the regulation, giving the floor first to subordinates, then to their superiors, etc.

After the meeting, the leader makes a brief overview and specifies the results in the form of either a final decision or the task of a group to prepare such a decision. Read more: Cog's ladder of group development

Conclusion

The main thing in the work of the manager, the "crown" of this work, is the achievements or practical results. They are what this work is measured and evaluated by, but this measurement and evaluation have different sides:

Level of analysis - in the expanded version the evaluation of the work of the manager starts from the individual contractor, goes through the group and the organization, and reaches those who will use the products and services of the organization, as well as society as a whole;

Evaluation criteria - the problem of the many possible criteria to make a selection that will allow evaluating the activity from its main parties and levels;

Activity measures - it is a question of finding the most appropriate combination between quantitative (volume, sales, market share, etc.) and subjective or qualitative (satisfaction, empathy, etc.) measures;

Objectives - whether the activity is aimed at maintaining the current state and level, to achieve some quantitative change in it, or to innovations;

Deadlines - it is a question of in what time intervals the purposes should be realized and how to coordinate in time.

At the heart of the work of managers are its functions. They are the basis of this work, but their specific content and practical implementation depend on both the acquired skills and the appropriate selection and structure of roles.

Also, the effective work of the manager requires at least three groups of skills. Each of these groups has a different meaning for different levels of management and a different degree of difficulty in mastering them.

Managers at all levels perform three groups and a total of ten different but closely related roles.

Managers in different areas of the organization differ in the time they spend on different functions, in the nature and structure of the required skills, in the content and structure of the roles performed.

The variety of tasks, situations, and problems that arise in the contacts of the manager with subordinates and society as a whole are the main source of challenge to the abilities of the manager. The main principles in building the relationship of the manager within the company are objectivity, attention to subordinates, respect for others and defending their own opinion, assessment of each action from the standpoint of company interests.

Simply put

To do his job well, a manager must have certain basic skills (qualities), whether he is at the lower or higher levels on the career path. Naturally, different levels and areas of management require a complex combination of skills. Managerial skills are important to being a good boss.

Managers are typically skilled in the technical, human, and conceptual realms.

Technical skills are a valuable asset within the company and include knowing how to use tools, techniques, and procedures. This set of skills increases the likelihood that one will be hired for lower-level positions and decreases with seniority.

Insights for working with larger groups of people: the ability to select, guide, and motivate fellow employees, and know what they are good at.

All levels of management need to have humanitarian skills as a large part of their job. Higher-level managers rely on fewer people and subsequently have less interaction with them, but at each level, there’s an emphasis on teamwork.

Conceptual skills are related to the ability to see and understand how different elements of an organization fit together, as well as seeing and understanding how changes in one element will be reflected in other parts.

The four roles of the decision-maker are information role, consent role, authority role, and power for action. The research concludes that the people with a managerial position in an organization are necessary to make decisions.

Managers aspire to improve the firm by implementing changes, but often find themselves reacting to external pressures instead.

Managers are responsible for many tasks. One of the most important is deciding who should take what.

The manager has the right to approve important decisions that should be started by exercising this right.

Managers are in charge of important negotiating decisions. Negotiations with other companies, the government, or even their employees all involve a lot of these negotiations that are an essential part of day-to-day operations and can be handled solely by managers.

Managers without contact with external information cannot disseminate the information that employees need, nor can they make decisions that adequately reflect external conditions.

If you ask managers what they do, the answer will most likely be organizing and managing. 

Managers have little time to perform basic management functions because they are wasted on conversations that can be solved by lower levels of management, problems that can be solved with more focus, and organized communications.

Changing and planning is one of the most time-consuming activities for senior management, while organization and leadership are primarily the domain of middle managers. Grassroots managers' primary responsibility is to enforce authority and control.

Scheduling an effective meeting should follow certain guidelines to avoid any complications: respecting the designated timeline and introductions, making it clear what the focus of the meeting is as well as clarifying any relevant regulations.

New business organization

Author: Will Mattingley

In the last hundred years, two major events in management have changed the face of modern business, the first separating management from ownership and establishing the role of the professional manager.

The second is related to the emergence of giant corporations with a pronounced decentralization of management and the separation of operational and management staff. This form of an organization remains prevalent to this day.

Today, business is entering the third period of change.

In ten years, a large company will have twice as many levels of management and no more than a third of its managers as it does today.

Both the structure and the management problems of the business in the relatively near future will have almost nothing in common with those of the typical industrial company of the 50s, which is still considered as an example in textbooks. It is likely to be much more like those organizations that are not analyzed today by either hospital or university management theorists or the symphony orchestra.

Similarly, the typical business company will be based on information processing, and its staff will consist mainly of specialists who will guide and correct their activities through well-organized feedback from colleagues, users, and management.

Companies, especially larger ones, have no choice but to become organizations based on information processing.

The center of gravity in hiring labor is rapidly shifting from manual and clerical work to workers with specialized knowledge who find it difficult to fit into the "order-control" model borrowed from the military 100 years ago.

Modern information technologies are not the only necessary condition without which the creation of a new type of organization is impossible.

However, with the advancement of technology, we are forced to deal more and more with analysis and diagnosis, that is, with "information". Otherwise, we run the risk of being overwhelmed by data that we generate ourselves.

Most computer users use this technology only to do faster the work they did before manipulating ordinary digital data. But once a company takes the first steps from data processing to information processing, the decision-making process, its management structure, and even day-to-day operations change.

The first manifestations of this transformation process can be seen if we consider the impact of computer technology on decision-making for important capital investments.

There is no single sure way to analyze a capital investment project. Its correct assessment would have taken a huge amount of office work. And now anyone who has a computer and a program can do the job in a matter of hours.

The availability of this information turns the analysis of capital investments from a matter of opinion into a matter of diagnosis.

A second area that is affected when a company focuses its data processing capabilities on obtaining information is its structure. It is almost immediately clear that the number of management levels and the number of management staff can be sharply reduced.

The rationale is simple: entire layers of the management apparatus neither make decisions nor lead. Instead, their main function is to serve as "gears" human "amplifiers" of weak, obscure signals, which are considered communications in the traditional pre-information organization.

One of the largest American companies executing military orders made this discovery when asked what information is needed for the work of its management and operational management personnel.

When looking for an answer, it turned out that whole levels of government, six out of 14, exist only because such questions have never been asked before.

Information is a collection of data that has a specific meaning and purpose. Turning data into information requires certain knowledge, and knowledge is inherently specialized.

The "information" organization needs many more specialists than the corporation, managed by orders and control. Moreover, specialists are needed at the operational level, not at the top management level. The operational and production part of the company is increasingly becoming an organization of specialists.

Information-based organizations

Information-based organizations need more than ever such central services as legal advice, a public relations department (including advertising), and an employment department.

But the needs for service staff, ie people without operational responsibilities who only give advice or coordinate, are declining sharply.

There is almost no need for specialists in the directorate of the information-based organization.

Because the structure of large information-based organizations will be "flatter," they will look more like companies a century ago than modern large corporations. But in the past, all knowledge was in the possession of senior management.

All the others were assistants or contractors who did mostly the same work according to the orders received "from above". In the information-based organization, the knowledge will be available to the lowest operational staff, to the specialists who will perform a variety of work and will not need guidance.

The typical organization today, in which knowledge is possessed mainly by service personnel, whose place is somewhere between the top level of management and the level of operational staff, should be considered as an intermediate stage.

Finally, in an information-based organization, the work will be done differently. Traditional departments will serve as guardians of certain standards, as centers for training and distribution of specialists.

Such changes are already taking place in those departments of enterprises whose activities have the most clearly defined research character.

In the pharmaceutical, telecommunications, and paper industries, the traditional sequence of the research, development, production, and marketing stages is being replaced by synchronicity: specialists from all these units cooperate from the start of research to the delivery of the finished product to the market.

It is not yet clear how special task teams will be organized. The need for such teams, their appointment, composition, and management will be determined depending on the specific circumstances.

One thing is clear, however: they will require higher self-discipline and greater individual responsibility for the relationships and communications between their members.

It is very easy to say that information technology is transforming business enterprises. It is more difficult to decipher what such a transformation will require from companies and their management.

I think it is useful in this connection to look at the functioning of other information-based organizations, such as the hospital or the symphony orchestra.

The symphony orchestra is an extremely accurate example because the performance of some works requires the simultaneous collaboration of many musicians.

According to the theory of the organization, in such cases there should be several groups, headed and led by conductors "vice-presidents", and maybe by half a dozen deputies of these "vice-presidents". But the orchestra functions quite differently.

There is only one conductor in it (or "general director" ), and each musician is "subordinate" directly to this person without any intermediate instances. Moreover, each of the musicians is a highly qualified specialist artist in the literal sense of the word.

There are hardly any conductors who know how to play the French horn, let alone that they can advise the horn player on how to play this instrument. But the conductor's task is to focus the hornist's skill on the ensemble performance of the whole orchestra. It is this focus of effort that the leaders of any information-based organization should strive to achieve.